Lunar Base Research Articles

Assessing black soldier fly pupation and survival in lunar regolith simulant: Implications for sustainable controlled habitats on the Moon

Bioregenerative life-support systems (BLSSs) will be crucial for extended space missions and extraterrestrial habitats. The black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens, is recognized for its efficient organic waste consumption, making it well-suited for closed environments like spacecraft. Our study assessed H. illucens adaptability to different substrates, including a lunar regolith simulant, pertinent to future lunar colonization. Remarkably resilient, H. illucens prepupal larvae successfully pupated in all tested substrates, but pupation timing varied, with no-substrate larvae pupating later. Pupal stage duration also differed, particularly with lunar regolith simulant and sand treatments resulting in longer durations. Substrate treatments significantly influenced the number of emerged adults, with lunar regolith simulant yielding more adults than the no-substrate treatment. Additionally, sand and wood shavings treatments produced more adults, highlighting H. illucens adaptability to various substrates, including lunar regolith. These findings are crucial for future BLSSs design. Additionally, H. illucens adaptability to lunar regolith provides insights into life's adaptability in space environments, guiding future experiments on celestial bodies. This study provides critical data on how different substrates, including lunar regolith simulants, influence H. illucens development and survival, advancing BLSSs and ecological science in both space and terrestrial contexts.

PneumoPlanet: An Inflatable Moonbase Concept for the European Space Agency 1. Design and Location

One of the greatest objectives of space exploration today is to establish a permanent outpost on the Moon that would allow exploration of the lunar polar regions and the exploitation of local water resources. We envision this lunar outpost as a structure made up of inflatable elements, which would utilize solar energy to produce biomass, and thus, both oxygen and food for the astronauts. Due to the extremely low weight of the inflatable elements, we could build a very large infrastructure on the Moon with the help of only a few rocket launches. The low cost and the sustainable nature of such infrastructure can lay the foundation for a permanent human presence on the Moon. Keywords: Inflatable, Lunar Habitat, Moonbase, Illumination, Sustainability, Greenhouse, Cultivation

Iron-enhanced simulated lunar regolith sintered blocks: Preparation, sintering and mechanical properties

Lunar surface constructions face a hostile service environment, the objective of this study is to develop a lunar base construction material with excellent mechanical properties and superior durability. Based on the abundant iron (Fe) resources on the moon, simulated lunar regolith sintered blocks (CUG-1A) with varying Fe additions (0–10 wt%) were prepared by pressureless sintering, and their sintering characteristics, phase compositions and mechanical performance before and after high-low temperature treatment were studied. The results show that the introduction of the Fe phase noticeably improve the sintering quality and increase the relative density. Furthermore, the Fe phase significantly fortified the sintered blocks, when the Fe addition reached at 10 wt%, the blocks could achieve a compressive strength of 150.92 MPa and a tensile strength of 21.01 MPa. The Fe phase's reinforcement could stem from the mechanisms of promoting sintering, crack deflection and Fe phase bridging. Meanwhile, the high-low temperature treatment does not cause any substantial alterations in the blocks' mechanical strength nor their failure modes. Lastly, large-sized sintered blocks with high dimensional regularity were produced through process optimization, providing a reference for the construction of lunar bases.

Evaluation of Mechanical Properties of Mortar Generated by using Lunar Soil Simulant

This study investigates the mechanical properties of mortar produced using lunar soil simulant, with the aim of assessing its suitability for construction in extraterrestrial habitats. Various tests including fineness test, specific gravity, standard consistency and compressive test were conduct to evaluate the performance of the mortar. Factor such as particle size distribution, binder type, curing conditions and environmental influences were scrutinized to gain comprehensive insights into the material’s suitability for construction purposes. The findings provide insights into the feasibility of utilizing lunar soil simulant based mortar for future space missions and lunar colonization efforts

Optimizing translucent multilayer membrane for lunar habitats: A design study

In the recently boosted scenario, the eventual settlement in extreme extra-terrestrial environments, notably the Moon and Mars, stands as critical objective driving the forefront of space exploration endeavours: the possibility of realizing a lunar settlement is currently under study by NASA Artemis Program and others active subjects in the aerospace sector (Schrunk et al., 2008) [1]. As mission duration tends to increase, the wellness of crew members emerges as a stronger concern, affecting the habitat features and driving the design towards solutions that still must face environmental constraints. A wide exploration in the aerospace field has been conducted, starting from the experience accumulated in more than 50 years of experimentation and activity on board of the active and decommissioned space stations.In recent years, several pioneering concepts for human living structures on our satellite have been proposed, with an extensive adoption of transparent inflatable or deployable shells. Even if these proposals can lead the way for optimized solution identification, the technical characterization of these shells has not been extensively explored yet, and it represents a mandatory step in the path for achieving the best possible prototype to be built on the Moon surface. Our research aims to assess the viability of employing transparent or translucent inflatable-type envelopes within the harsh conditions of extra-terrestrial environments.The research background has been extensively investigated in order to identify best practices and promising solutions, which have been proposed here. Where no previous tests were conducted, traditional Earth-related engineering tools where utilized. The result of this work is a multilayer membrane to be deployed through internal air pressurization, with the correct size of each of the composing layers calculated by employing multi-physics simulations employing multi-physics simulations and computational.The outcome of this work represents not a definitive design, but an introductive experience with the aim to launch wider investigations to reach higher TRLs. Finally, we aimed to identify the limits of this research that need to be addressed in order to make an inflatable multilayer membrane feasible to be adopted for long permanent human missions on the Moon.

Simulated Lunar Soil: Can It Be Organically Modified through Compost Cultivation?

This study aimed to explore the possibility of improving the fertility of lunar soil through the reuse of resources by composting household waste and collecting composting fermentation broth. The fermentation broth was used to culture a simulated lunar soil at different concentration gradients for 30 days under aerobic and anaerobic conditions. Microbial biomass carbon and nitrogen content, typical mineral elements, and the microbial community were tested to determine whether the fertility of the lunar soil had improved. Results showed that the microorganisms in the simulated lunar soil samples successfully adhered and grew under both aerobic and anaerobic experimental conditions. The simulated lunar soil samples cultured in the anaerobic environment outperformed those in the aerobic environment regarding microbial biomass growth and water-soluble mineral elements. The study results create opportunities for the future reuse of domestic garbage on the lunar base, providing a technical basis for the in situ reuse of lunar soil resources for plant cultivation.

Vacuum sintering of the self-developed Chang’E-5 lunar regolith simulant

The utilization of in-situ lunar resources through the additive manufacturing of lunar regolith (LR) has attracted considerable interest. Sintering of LR is considered a promising method for lunar construction due to its high utilization rate and excellent service stability. However, numerous studies have been carried out on Apollo series LRs with similar chemical compositions in air or inert gas atmospheres. The effects of the lunar ultra-high vacuum conditions and the complex chemical composition of LRs on the sintering process require extensive investigation. In this study, a self-developed Chang’E-5 lunar regolith simulant (LRS) with a high-Fe content was used as the only raw material to investigate its potential applicability for future lunar construction in vacuum environment. The effects of sintering temperature on the microstructure, linear shrinkage, bulk density, weight loss ratio, and mechanical and thermal expansion properties were investigated. The results show that the linear shrinkage and weight loss ratio increase with increasing sintering temperature. However, the bulk density and unconfined compressive strength (USC) initially increase and then decrease, with the sample sintered at 1075℃ giving the highest bulk density of 2.10 ± 0.03 g/cm3 and a USC of 31.19 ± 1.96 MPa. This is attributed to the transformation of the sample sintered at 1090℃ into a semi-porous material with many cracks. Furthermore, the mechanism of pore and crack formation was revealed. The coefficient of thermal expansion (CET) of the sintered samples is approximately 7×10–6°C−1, which maintains a good service stability after cyclic temperature stress from room temperature up to 200°C. Both the USC and CET of the sample sintered at 1075℃ are superior to those of common terrestrial concrete materials. This indicates that the vacuum sintering process appears feasible for the production of building materials with sufficient mechanical strength and thermal durability for lunar base construction.

Performance evaluation of AMTEC/TEG coupling system for nuclear power space stations in space exploration

For deep space exploration, the performance of an alkali metal thermoelectric converter (AMTEC) can be improved by utilizing the thermoelectric generator (TEG) subsystem. In this work, a coupling system comprised of an AMTEC and a TEG is proposed, in which the waste heat produced by the AMTEC top cycle is used by the TEG bottom cycle cooled by a heat pipe radiator. A general mathematical model is built to analyze the output power and efficiency of each subsystem and the whole system. Finally, the effect of critical parameters on the output power and efficiency are evaluated, including the current density of AMTEC, dimensionless current i of TEG, geometrical structure, and operating environment. The results show that the combined AMTEC/TEG system is 4.35% and 15.39% higher than the efficiency and output power obtained when using the TEG subsystem to recycle the waste heat from the AMTEC condenser. The thermoelectric conversion performance of the AMTEC/TEG system is related to that of the AMTEC subsystem while less affected by the TEG subsystem. The present work could provide a new route for constructing long-distance nuclear space power stations, rovers, and lunar bases in extreme environments.

Robust control algorithm designed for robotic legs of lunar-based equipment: Modeling and experiment

In lunar exploration, lunar-based equipment assumes the responsibility of mobility and transportation during the construction of unmanned lunar base. Legged robots are an important form of the lunar-based equipment due to their mobility and terrain adaptability. However, the influence of lunar terrain and lunar soil cannot be ignored when it comes to studying the mobile stability of lunar-based equipment. Utilizing the dynamic model of the robotic leg, this study proposes a new robust control algorithm, MBC (Model-Based with Continuous expression) algorithm, for lunar-based equipment’s robotic leg, and its effectiveness is established through experimentation and theoretical validation with the Lyapunov second method. In the design and verification, the contact force of lunar soil and the lunar environment with low gravity are considered, indicating the applicability of the proposed MBC method in special lunar scenarios. Compared to the conventional PD (Proportional-Differential) and MPD (Model-Based Proportional-Differential) techniques, MBC robust algorithm ultimately demonstrates superior stability and rapidity with a smaller steady state error.

Property evolution and service life prediction of novel metallic materials for future lunar bases

Property evolution and service life prediction of novel metallic materials for future lunar bases

Key Technologies for Korean Space Heat Pipe Reactor

Sustainable energy is crucial for long-term space missions. Fission surface power is a leading option due to its ability to provide consistent electricity and heat irrespective of the sun’s position or distance. A heat pipe is the primary cooling solution for space fission power systems. It operates without the need for additional electricity or gravity. It offers the advantage of streamlining the reactor design by eliminating components such as pumps and piping. This paper presents the advancements in the Korean space heat pipe reactor development program over the past 4 years. The primary objectives of this program include the development of codes for space heat pipe reactors, the innovative design of a hybrid wick structure, and the evaluation of the thermal performance of liquid-metal heat pipes.

Lunar Regolith Geopolymer Concrete for In-Situ Construction of Lunar Bases: A Review.

The construction of lunar bases represents a fundamental challenge for deep space exploration, lunar research, and the exploitation of lunar resources. In-situ resource utilization (ISRU) technology constitutes a pivotal tool for constructing lunar bases. Using lunar regolith to create geopolymers as construction materials offers multiple advantages as an ISRU technique. This paper discusses the principle of geopolymer for lunar regolith, focusing on the reaction principle of geopolymer. It also analyzes the applicability of geopolymer under the effects of the lunar surface environment and the differences between the highland and mare lunar regolith. This paper summarizes the characteristics of existing lunar regolith simulants and the research on the mechanical properties of lunar regolith geopolymers using lunar regolith simulants. Highland lunar regolith samples contain approximately 36% amorphous substances, the content of silicon is approximately 28%, and the ratios of Si/Al and Si/Ca are approximately 1.5 and 2.6, respectively. They are more suitable as precursor materials for geopolymers than mare samples. The compressive strength of lunar regolith geopolymer is mainly in the range of 18~30 MPa. Sodium silicate is the most commonly utilized activator for lunar regolith geopolymers; alkalinity in the range of 7% to 10% and modulus in the range of 0.8 to 2.0 are suitable. A vacuum environment and multiple temperature cycles reduce the mechanical properties of geopolymers by 8% to 70%. Future research should be concentrated on the precision control of the lunar regolith's chemical properties and the alkali activation efficacy of geopolymers in the lunar environment.

Preliminary investigation and proposal of periodic orbits and their utilization for logistics in the cislunar regime

The world is in the midst of what is widely considered the second Space Age due to the vastly growing commercial space sector and progress with international initiatives such as the Artemis program, led by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Cislunar space is becoming a region of growing interest as nations, international organizations, and private corporations look to expand their presence and outreach. The planned development of space infrastructure, such as lunar habitats, mining operations, and other installations, is driving the need for studies regarding common orbital pathways to ensure logistical support for future cislunar missions. Along with common orbital pathways, comprehensive and internationally acknowledged space policy and doctrine is required to ensure the safety, stability, and peace of this new frontier of human endeavor. This study serves to address one of the mission sets that will come to shape the emerging economy of the wider Earth-Moon system, space logistics. Specifically, this study will discuss potential orbits for a cislunar space situational awareness network that would support a space traffic management service, along with three cislunar logistics missions: personnel and cargo transport, space tourism, and search and rescue. Characteristics considered for orbits include orbit stability, period, and the proximity to key nodes in cislunar space such as the Moon and Lagrange points. Using Circular Restricted Three-Body Problem (CR3BP) dynamics, fourteen sample cislunar periodic orbits are proposed to accomplish the cislunar missions discussed. This study adds to the limited work in the field of cislunar orbital design to generate novel orbits and apply them to logistical use cases. All missions, except tourism, feature a “touring” class of cislunar periodic orbits due to their unique geometries enabling them to traverse a wide range of cislunar space. Preliminary analysis indicates that all of the proposed orbits are classified as marginally unstable, and suggests that minimal propellant is required to maintain a space vehicle's intended cislunar trajectory. Finally, existing law, policy, and governance surrounding cislunar space logistics and operations is discussed specifically concerning space traffic management, transportation, and humans touring or being rescued from space. Special attention is given to both the ambiguity of the law and the limitations of current norms of behavior, patent and property concerns, and tense geopolitical situations that can further complicate peace. Overall, this study highlights the underdevelopment of current space law and policy with the ambiguity of present-day norms discussed.

Far from Tranquility Base

Abstract The Apple+ television series For All Mankind imagines an alternative history in which the Soviets beat the United States to the moon and the Cold War space race never ends. Gender politics and associated dynamics are central to the action. This article explores plotlines involving two fictional cosmonauts: the first woman on the moon and a male crew member stationed at the Soviet's lunar base. It finds that FAM reinforces Cold War tropes, anxieties, and “us vs them” formulations. FAM's writers miss the opportunity to probe the complexities of gender and personhood in the late Soviet era. Instead of encouraging more nuanced thinking about “the Russians,” FAM's universe perpetuates Cold War sensibilities that promote competition and conflict on Earth and in space.

Comprehensive performance evaluation of basic type of lunar habitat

ABSTRACT Amid the burgeoning lunar economy, habitat establishment is vital for exploration. The investigation into lunar habitat morphology requires systematic organization. To systematically and comprehensively delve into lunar habitats morphological design, this study analyzes spatial elements and relationships through the profiling of lunar habitats. It comprehensively analyzes spatial elements and relationships, laying the groundwork for a dedicated performance evaluation system. It provides theoretical and technical references for lunar habitat forms in the early design phase. First, it summarizes four basic types of lunar habitat profiles. Second, it selects 23 factors influencing lunar habitat profile design, using the Delphi method to filter six major ones. Third, various simulation experiments assess each type’s performance under factors. Fourth, the TOPSIS method analyzes comprehensive performance. This study has developed a comprehensive performance evaluation system and an integrated experimental methodology for assessing the architectural profile morphology of lunar habitat structures. Employing the evaluation system, a comprehensive experimental analysis was conducted on four basic types in the current phase. This analysis yielded two design suggestions for profile elements and three optimization directions for profile design. The discussion offers insights for future evaluations, considering mission innovation and technological advancements.

The Selene Mission: Paving the Way for a Large-Scale Commercial Moon Colony and a Multi-Trillion-Dollar Lunar Economy

The Selene Mission, spearheaded by Titans Space Industries, endeavors to establish a large-scale commercial settlement on the Moon, Titania Lunar, ushering in a new era of lunar exploration and economic activity. Building upon NASA's Apollo and Artemis missions, Selene aims to achieve this ambitious goal earlier and more cost-effectively, supported by substantial funding from Titans Astronauts. This initiative envisions transforming the Moon into a vibrant frontier for human habitation and commerce. Drawing inspiration from NASA's Artemis program, Project Selene seeks to create a sustainable space transport system for cis-lunar travel, laying the groundwork for a thriving lunar economy. The mission comprises three phases: establishing a robust lunar transportation network, developing Titania Lunar into a flourishing base, and evolving it into a bustling metropolis. Key components of the mission include reusable spacecraft, orbital staging posts, a lunar surface transportation network, pressurized habitats, in-situ resource utilization, and lunar power generation. Collaborative efforts with private partners and international entities will drive innovation and investment, while responsible tourism and resource extraction will fuel economic growth. The Selene Mission not only promises economic potential, with projections of a multi-trillion-dollar lunar economy, but also scientific advancements and societal benefits. By inspiring future generations and fostering global unity, this mission marks a paradigm shift in humanity's relationship with the Moon. Ultimately, the Selene Mission heralds a future where humans thrive on the Moon, creating a sustainable and prosperous lunar civilization.

Radiator production for Pylon Fission Surface Power System through lunar In-Situ Resource Utilization

Background Fission Surface Power (FSP) is currently being considered by NASA for future lunar exploration and Ultra-Safe Nuclear Corporation (USNC) is developing their Pylon FSP system. Methods This paper introduces the system focusing on the materials used for its main components. It also analyses the lunar availability of the elements required to produce these components and suggests that In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU) should be considered. Results As a result of the conducted analysis, it is concluded that since mass is the most important parameter when launching payload from Earth, the Pylon component with the largest mass should be considered further. The heaviest system component is the power system which, however, consists of many other components that are made from various materials. The second heaviest component is the radiator made of Titanium (Ti) metal heat pipes and Graphite Fiber Reinforced Composite (GFRC) face sheets with water as the working fluid. Since the production of Ti metal on the Moon is non-economical, Aluminum (Al) metal utilized for the International Space Station (ISS) is considered. Lunar infrastructure required to produce Al using ISRU is already available. Further analysis will be conducted in the future to look into laser 3D printing technologies. Lunar Resources Inc. is already developing techniques for Al extraction from regolith for the production of Al wires. Conclusions This research shows that all the required technologies already exist, and the next step will be to identify how the obtained Al can be manufactured into radiators. It will also be important to identify how much of the total radiator mass is Al metal to increase the fidelity of this analysis Future research will find the break-even point between the Pylon Ti radiators launched from Earth and the production of Al radiators on the Moon.

Framework for Seismic Vulnerability Assessment of Nonstructural Elements Inside an Inflatable Lunar Habitat

The pursuit of knowledge and curiosity are once again driving humanity to seek a human presence on extraterrestrial bodies. While numerous challenges must be overcome on the moon to achieve this goal, the moonquake hazard has often been overlooked. Using NASA’s Moon to Mars Architecture requirements for surface habitation and accounting for the midterm/long-term mission duration, a framework for vulnerability assessment is developed for essential nonstructural elements (NSEs) inside an inflatable habitat subjected to moonquakes. The aim of this study is to develop an approach to assess the vulnerability of typical NSEs that support essential equipment, such as the environmental control and life support system, under a paucity of information related to the seismic hazard. We also emphasize that the launch dynamic environment and lunar seismic environment exhibit notable differences in their characteristics, which can lead to higher lateral acceleration levels than initially expected. This acceleration may be linked to high-occurrence seismic events. However, due to the lack of information regarding the frequency of these events, the risk of NSEs being subjected to unforeseen loads increases. It is imperative to equip future lunar habitats with seismic mitigation measures until additional seismometers are deployed near upcoming surface human outposts.

Preparation of geopolymer for in-situ pavement construction on the moon utilizing minimal additives and human urine in lunar regolith simulant

Constructing lunar pavements is of great significance for improving the transportation efficiency of materials and personnel transfer at lunar bases. Utilizing lunar regolith for the in-situ preparation of geopolymer is an effective means of supplying raw materials for lunar pavement construction. This present study prepared geopolymers for pavement material with lunar regolith simulant. The influence of NaOH on the compressive strength of geopolymers was understood by using different percentages of NaOH as alkaline activator. The effect of urine on the compressive strength of geopolymers by using artificial urine of different pH values as liquid phases. The results indicated that the addition of artificial urine slightly reduces the compressive strength of geopolymers, and the effects of pH and NaOH percentage are different. Microstructural analysis performed by Mercury Intrusion Porosimetry and Scanning Electron Microscope, indicated that choosing fine-particle lunar regolith simulant as precursor is more conducive to the preparation of high-strength geopolymers using human urine.

Preparation and evaluation of GCD-1 lunar regolith simulant based geopolymer activated by solid sodium silicate

In this study, a new lunar regolith simulant, named "GCD-1", was formulated by combining various minerals, such as anorthite, albite, pyroxene, ilmenite, slag, and fly ash. Through X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis, it was verified that the main mineral composition of GCD-1 was basically the same as that of the lunar soil at the Apollo 14 landing site, in which the deviation in the main compound (i.e., SiO2 and Al2O3) was within 0.5%. Furthermore, GCD-1 based geopolymer was prepared by the one-part method, which was a mixture of solid GCD-1 precursor, solid sodium silicate (SS) activator, and water. The average daytime temperature at the lunar equator, which was calculated to be 60°C, was set as the curing temperature for the GCD-1 based geopolymer. The strength development of the GCD-1 based geopolymer was then characterized by unconfined compressive strength (UCS) for 3, 7, and 12 curing days to consider the effectiveness of the factors (solid SS to lunar regolith simulant [S/L] and water to binder ratio [W/B]). The micro-analysis tests including scanning electron microscope-energy dispersive spectrometer (SEM-EDS), mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP), and brunner-emmet-teller (BET), were further conducted to investigate the microstructural development of the GCD-1 based geopolymer. Results showed that the increase of the W/B ratio in the GCD-1 based geopolymer tended to increase the total porosity of the sample, thereby inducing a lower UCS. At the same time, for a fixed W/B ratio, the higher S/L ratio had a certain inhibition effect on the hydration reaction, which caused the reduction in the UCS of the sample. The highest UCS of the GCD-1 based geopolymer reaching 30.54 MPa, was achieved under the simulated lunar equatorial daytime temperature for 12 days with W/B and S/L ratios set at 0.25 and 0.18, respectively. Microstructure and mineralogy analyses indicated that the hydrated sodium aluminosilicate (N-A-S-H) gels contributed to reducing the sample's porosity, thereby enhancing the UCS. The relationship between the UCS and total porosity of GCD-1 based geopolymer was then derived. The results of the current study are crucial for lunar base construction with in-situ resources.