Mobile Eye Tracking Research Articles

Enhancing User Experience in Fashion m-Retail: Mapping Shopping User Journey Using Google Analytics, Eye Tracking Technology and Retrospective Think Aloud Interview

With increased mobile traffic to fashion retailers’ websites, conversion rates are lower than for desktop users. Mobile consumers more readily abandon retailers if not satisfied with their shopping experience. There is a dearth of literature involving Google Analytics to analyze digital consumer shopping behavior and customer journeys. Retailers need to innovate the ways they approach the vast amount of digital analytics data. This research highlights the need for continuous auditing of Google Analytics data to ensure retailers understand the behavior of their mobile consumers and respond to their needs accordingly. A multi-method research design incorporated mobile fashion consumer data from Google Analytics, innovative mobile eye tracking technology and retrospective think aloud. A comparison of consumer shopping journeys showed that a Digital User Journey Mapping Framework based on eye tracking data can be used to audit Google Analytics datasets and to understand what elements of the fashion retailer’s website consumers prefer to interact with. Retrospective think aloud interviews complementing eye tracking experiments define how digital user experience can be improved in fashion m-retail. The shopping journey map framework can be used for mobile fashion consumer behavior analysis, auditing Google Analytics datasets and enhancing digital user experience.

Information processing on smartphones in public versus private

Abstract People increasingly turn to news on mobile devices, often while out and about, attending to daily tasks. Yet, we know little about whether attention to and learning from information on a mobile differs by the setting of use. This study builds on Multiple Resource Theory (Wickens, 1984) and the Resource Competition Framework (Oulasvirta et al., 2005) to compare visual attention to a dynamic newsfeed, varying only the setting: private or public. We use mobile eye-tracking to evaluate the effects of setting on attention and assess correspondent learning differences after exposure to the feed, which allows us to uncover a relationship between attention and learning. Findings indicate higher visual attention to mobile newsfeed posts in public, relative to a private setting. Moreover, scrolling through news on a smartphone in public attenuates some knowledge gain but is beneficial for other learning outcomes.

Generating accurate 3D gaze vectors using synchronized eye tracking and motion capture.

Assessing gaze behavior during real-world tasks is difficult; dynamic bodies moving through dynamic worlds make gaze analysis difficult. Current approaches involve laborious coding of pupil positions. In settings where motion capture and mobile eye tracking are used concurrently in naturalistic tasks, it is critical that data collection be simple, efficient, and systematic. One solution is to combine eye tracking with motion capture to generate 3D gaze vectors. When combined with tracked or known object locations, 3D gaze vector generation can be automated. Here we use combined eye and motion capture and explore how linear regression models generate accurate 3D gaze vectors. We compare spatial accuracy of models derived from four short calibration routines across three pupil data inputs: the efficacy of calibration routines was assessed, a validation task requiring short fixations on task-relevant locations, and a naturalistic object interaction task to bridge the gap between laboratory and "in the wild" studies. Further, we generated and compared models using spherical and Cartesian coordinate systems and monocular (left or right) or binocular data. All calibration routines performed similarly, with the best performance (i.e., sub-centimeter errors) coming from the naturalistic task trials when the participant is looking at an object in front of them. We found that spherical coordinate systems generate the most accurate gaze vectors with no differences in accuracy when using monocular or binocular data. Overall, we recommend 1-min calibration routines using binocular pupil data combined with a spherical world coordinate system to produce the highest-quality gaze vectors.

Visual Attention to Novel Products - Cross-Cultural Insights From Physiological Data.

The study aims to investigate visual attention and perceived attractiveness to known versus unknown (novel) products above and beyond self-report applying physiological methods. A cross-cultural exploratory approach allows for comparing results gathered in the United States and China. We collected field data on physiological parameters accompanied by behavioral data. Mobile eye-tracking was employed to capture attention by measuring gaze parameters and electrodermal activity serves as indicator for arousal at an unconscious level. A traditional scale approach measuring perceived attractiveness of known versus novel products provide insights at a conscious level. US-American and Chinese consumers in our sample indeed process novel products differently. This can be observed at an unconscious and conscious level. Different gaze movements and arousal levels are observed at an unconscious level. Regarding behavioral data, the level of vertical orientation shapes the perceived attractiveness of novel products at a conscious level. The study showcases how physiological methods complement behavioral ones when investigating visual attention to products. It underlines varying conscious as well as unconscious visual attention and attractiveness ratings comparing known versus novel products, driven by cultural differences. Data from a field setting further enrich the implications derived for new product development and applied marketing.

Evaluating the integration of eye-tracking and motion capture technologies: Quantifying the accuracy and precision of gaze measures.

Integrating mobile eye tracking and optoelectronic motion capture enables point of gaze to be expressed within the laboratory co-ordinate system and presents a method not commonly applied during research examining dynamic behaviors, such as locomotion. This paper examines the quality of gaze data collected through the integration. Based on research suggesting increased viewing distances are associated with reduced data quality; the accuracy and precision of gaze data as participants (N = 11) viewed floor-based targets at distances of 1–6 m was investigated. A mean accuracy of 2.55 ± 1.12° was identified, however, accuracy and precision measures (relative to targets) were significantly (p < .05) reduced at greater viewing distances. We then consider if signal processing techniques may improve accuracy and precision, and overcome issues associated with missing data. A 4th-order Butterworth lowpass filter with cut-off frequencies determined via autocorrelation did not significantly improve data quality, however, interpolation via Quintic spline was sufficient to overcome gaps of up to 0.1 s. We conclude the integration of gaze and motion capture presents a viable methodology in the study of human behavior and presents advantages for data collection, treatment, and analysis. We provide considerations for the collection, analysis, and treatment of gaze data that may help inform future methodological decisions.

A Multi-Modal Gait Database of Natural Everyday-Walk in an Urban Environment

Human gait data have traditionally been recorded in controlled laboratory environments focusing on single aspects in isolation. In contrast, the database presented here provides recordings of everyday walk scenarios in a natural urban environment, including synchronized IMU−, FSR−, and gaze data. Twenty healthy participants (five females, fifteen males, between 18 and 69 years old, 178.5 ± 7.64 cm, 72.9 ± 8.7 kg) wore a full-body Lycra suit with 17 IMU sensors, insoles with eight pressure sensing cells per foot, and a mobile eye tracker. They completed three different walk courses, where each trial consisted of several minutes of walking, including a variety of common elements such as ramps, stairs, and pavements. The data is annotated in detail to enable machine-learning-based analysis and prediction. We anticipate the data set to provide a foundation for research that considers natural everyday walk scenarios with transitional motions and the interaction between gait and gaze during walking.

Colour, Pattern, Space and Time in Art Perception: Two Case Studies

Summary Colour and space are pervasive topics in both perception and art. This article investigates the role of colour and pattern in relation to space and time in the art works by two artists: Frank Stella, a well-known Post-War American abstract painter, and Pieter Vermeersch, an emerging Belgian abstract painter, representing a contemporary trend to break the barriers between artistic disciplines. While Stella adheres to the Modernist logic of non-illusionistic, non-spatial, non-referential art as object, perceived instantaneously, Vermeersch explores ways to enhance the viewers’ spatial and temporal experiences through complex art installations with multiple objects and architectural elements interacting with each other and with the spaces in which they are embedded. We discuss these major themes in some representative art works, and in the way they are perceived and appreciated by contemporary viewers, investigated in four empirical studies: two laboratory experiments using well-controlled stimuli derived from at works, and two museum studies employing a variety of methods, including mobile eye-tracking and questionnaires.

Do pupillary responses during authentic slot machine use reflect arousal or screen luminance fluctuations? A proof-of-concept study.

Modern slot machines are among the more harmful forms of gambling. Psychophysiological measures may provide a window into mental processes that underpin these harms. Here we investigated pupil dilation derived from eye tracking as a means of capturing changes in sympathetic nervous system arousal following outcomes on a real slot machine. We hypothesized that positively reinforcing slot machine outcomes would be associated with increases in arousal, reflected in larger pupil diameter. We further examined the contribution of game luminance fluctuations on pupil diameter. In Experiment 1A, experienced slot machine gamblers (N = 53) played a commercially-available slot machine in a laboratory for 20 minutes while wearing mobile eye tracking glasses. Analyses differentiated loss outcomes, wins, losses-disguised-as-wins, and (free-spin) bonus features. Bonus features were associated with rapid increases in pupil diameter following the onset of outcome-related audiovisual feedback, relative to losses. In Experiment 1B, luminance data were extracted from captured screen videos (derived from Experiment 1A) to characterize on-screen luminance changes that could modulate pupil diameter. Bonus features and wins were associated with pronounced and complex fluctuations in screen luminance (≈50 L and ≈25L, respectively). However, the pupil dilation that was observed to bonus features in Experiment 1A coincided temporally with only negligible changes in screen luminance, providing partial evidence that the pupil dilation to bonus features may be due to arousal. In Experiment 2, 12 participants viewed pairs of stimuli (scrambled slot machine images) at luminance difference thresholds of ≈25L, ≈50L, and ≈100L. Scrambled images presented at luminance differences of ≈25L and greater were sufficient to cause pupillary responses. Overall, pupillometry may detect event-related changes in sympathetic nervous system arousal following gambling outcomes, but researchers must pay careful attention to substantial in-game luminance changes that may confound arousal-based interpretations.

Teachers' visual focus of attention in relation to students' basic academic skills and teachers' individual support for students: An eye-tracking study

This study investigated how teachers' visual focus of attention is associated with students' basic academic skills and teachers' individual support for students in basic academic skills in authentic classroom settings. Teachers' (N = 46) visual focus of attention in the classroom was measured with mobile eye-tracking, and students' (N = 879) literacy and math skills were tested in Grade 1. The results revealed that teachers' visual focus of attention in terms of fixation counts correlated with students' basic academic skills and teachers' individual support for students in literacy and math. Two case studies showed that teachers' visual focus of attention varied among students with different teacher-reported individual support. It might indicate that the number of students with high teacher individual support in the classroom could influence how evenly teachers are able to distribute their attention. The practical implications of our findings suggest that it is essential to ensure the appropriate distribution of students who require greater individual support so these students can receive more of the teachers' visual focus of attention in the classrooms.

External focus facilitates cognitive stability and promotes motor performance of an interceptive task in children

ABSTRACT Recent evidence suggests that one of the benefits of external focus is facilitating task focus. To this extent, an external focus might influence cognitive function. To help elucidate the underlying mechanisms of attentional focus instructions, the aim of this study was to examine the influence of attentional focus instructions on cognitive stability and task focus, as indicated by the number of eye blinks, during an interceptive timing task with children who are at a crucial stage of motor coordination development. Twenty-four children (M age = 10.4 ± 0.9 years) performed a forehand drag shot with a floorball stick to hit a tennis ball at a target in each of three different attentional focus conditions: external focus “focus on the blade of the stick”, internal focus “focus on their hands”, and control (no focus instructions). A mobile eye tracker was used to record the number of eye blinks from the moment that the tennis ball was released by an experimenter from the top of a boccia ramp to the moment of the initial movement of the floorball stick. Results showed that the accuracy of hits was significantly better in the external focus relative to the internal focus condition. Also, the number of eye blinks was significantly lower in the external focus relative to the internal focus and control conditions. Findings suggest that improved cognitive stability and task focus may underlie the improved performance associated with an external focus in a visually demanding motor task in children.

Head-mounted mobile eye-tracking in the domestic dog: A new method.

Humans rely on dogs for countless tasks, ranging from companionship to highly specialized detection work. In their daily lives, dogs must navigate a human-built visual world, yet comparatively little is known about what dogs visually attend to as they move through their environment. Real-world eye-tracking, or head-mounted eye-tracking, allows participants to freely move through their environment, providing more naturalistic results about visual attention while interacting with objects and agents. In dogs, real-world eye-tracking has the potential to inform our understanding of cross-species cognitive abilities as well as working dog training; however, a robust and easily deployed head-mounted eye-tracking method for dogs has not previously been developed and tested. We present a novel method for real-world eye-tracking in dogs, using a simple head-mounted mobile apparatus mounted onto goggles designed for dogs. This new method, adapted from systems that are widely used in humans, allows for eye-tracking during more naturalistic behaviors, namely walking around and interacting with real-world stimuli, as well as reduced training time as compared to traditional stationary eye-tracking methods. We found that while completing a simple forced-choice treat finding task, dogs look primarily to the treat, and we demonstrated the accuracy of this method using alternative gaze-tracking methods. Additionally, eye-tracking revealed more fine-grained time course information and individual differences in looking patterns.

Adolescents reading texts in LexiaD, a dyslexia-specific Cyrillic font: A mobile eye-tracking study

Recently, LexiaD, a dyslexia-specific Cyrillic font, was tested alongside the widely used Arial font in an experiment during which adolescents with and without dyslexia silently read sentences on a computer screen (Alexeeva et al., 2022). LexiaD showed a worse performance than Arial at the beginning of the experiment, but by the end of it, LexiaD demonstrated a positive effect in feature extraction and similar performance in lexical access, text integration, and global reading processing. We suggest that Arial’s initial advantage can be explained either by its familiarity or by its design features. The current study aims to test these assumptions in adolescents without dyslexia by comparing LexiaD with two popular fonts familiar to adolescents: Times New Roman and Roboto (a default font for the Google applications that is similar to Arial). Participants silently read printed versions of three texts (one in each of the three fonts) while their eye movements were recorded using a mobile eye tracker (Pupil Core glasses). In reading speed measures, Roboto outperformed LexiaD, whereas we found no evidence that Times New Roman’s performance was better than that of LexiaD. Moreover, there was no evidence that the control fonts differed in terms of subjective font familiarity. Therefore, we speculate that it was the design features that contributed the most to Arial becoming a facilitating font in the previous experiment. A study that investigates the efficiency of LexiaD, Arial/Roboto, and Times New Roman in a less experienced group (with participants less accustomed to particular fonts) is required to replicate our results. Involving people with dyslexia in future studies is extremely important.

Investigating visual expertise in sculpture: A methodological approach using eye tracking.

Research on visual expertise has progressed significantly due to the availability of eye tracking tools. However, attempts to bring together research on expertise and eye tracking methodology provoke several challenges, because visual information processes should be studied in authentic and domain-specific environments. Among the barriers to designing appropriate research are the proper definition of levels of expertise, the tension between internal (experimental control) and external (authentic environments) validity, and the appropriate methodology to study eye movements in a three-dimensional environment. This exploratory study aims to address these challenges and to provide an adequate research setting by investigating visual expertise in sculpting. Eye movements and gaze patterns of 20 participants were investigated while looking at two sculptures in a museum. The participants were assigned to four different groups based on their level of expertise (laypersons, novices, semi-experts, experts). Using mobile eye tracking, the following parameters were measured: number of fixations, duration of fixation, dwell time in relevant areas, and revisits in relevant areas. Moreover, scan paths were analysed using the eyenalysis approach. Conclusions are drawn on both the nature of visual expertise in sculpting and the potential (and limitations) of empirical designs that aim to investigate expertise in authentic environments.

Assessing Visual Avoidance of Faces During Real-Life Social Stress in Children with Social Anxiety Disorder: A Mobile Eye-Tracking Study

This study measured visual attention (fixation count, dwell time) during two real-life social stress tasks using mobile eye-tracking glasses in children (9–13 years) diagnosed with social anxiety disorder (SAD; n = 25) and a healthy control group (HC; n = 30). The influence of state anxiety on attention allocation and negative self-evaluation biases regarding gaze behavior were also examined. Compared to the HC group, children with SAD showed visual avoidance (i.e., fewer fixations) of the faces of interaction partners during the second social stress task. While visual avoidance in HC children decreased with declining state anxiety from the first to the second social stress task, no such effect was found in children with SAD. A negative self-evaluation bias regarding gaze behavior in children with SAD was not found. In sum, measuring visual attention during real-life social situations may help enhance our understanding of social attention in childhood SAD.

A Spiral into the Mind

Comparing mobile eye tracking data from multiple participants without information about areas of interest (AOIs) is challenging because of individual timing and coordinate systems. We present a technique, the gaze spiral, that visualizes individual recordings based on image content of the stimulus. The spiral layout of the slitscan visualization is used to create a compact representation of scanpaths. The visualization provides an overview of multiple recordings even for long time spans and helps identify and annotate recurring patterns within recordings. The gaze spirals can also serve as glyphs that can be projected to 2D space based on established scanpath metrics in order to interpret the metrics and identify groups of similar viewing behavior. We present examples based on two egocentric datasets to demonstrate the effectiveness of our approach for annotation and comparison tasks. Our examples show that the technique has the potential to let users compare even long-term recordings of pervasive scenarios without manual annotation.

Beyond the smartphone's mere presence effect: A quantitative mobile eye tracking study on the visual and internal distraction potential of smartphones

Smartphones are a daily companion and ensure users' constant connectedness. In the context of focused work, however, smartphone presence may be problematic. Previous research has shown that even the mere presence of smartphones is distracting. The present study reexamined the smartphone's mere presence effect on performance. In addition, we investigated whether the mere presence of smartphones is visually distracting or creates smartphone-related thoughts. In a laboratory experiment, we compared participants (N = 103) with their smartphone present versus absent. Using mobile eye tracking glasses, we tracked how often people looked at their smartphone while performing cognitive and reading tasks. Our study could not replicate the negative effect of smartphone presence on performance. Results revealed that people rarely looked at their smartphones during the tasks. However, smartphones drew users' visual attention during breaks and transitions between tasks. We also showed that smartphone presence increased smartphone vigilance but had no effect on task performance. Our study contributes to understanding the underlying mechanisms of the smartphone's mere presence effects on performance. With this study, we extend previous research by showing that people can regulate their visual attention to smartphones.

Anticipation and timing of turn-taking in dialogue interpreting

Abstract This article presents the results of an exploratory study on the timing of turn-taking in face-to-face dialogue interpreting based on a corpus of interpreted interactions that were recorded with mobile eye-trackers. Our aims were to: (1) investigate the timing of interpreters’ turns in dialogic interaction; and (2) identify features that have an impact on interpreters’ turn-taking speed. These include input processing factors (including turn type and turn duration) and gaze, which have been shown to play an important role in turn-taking. The analysis shows that, although interpreters in our study tend to orient to the maxim ‘one speaker at a time’, turn transitions between the primary speaker and the interpreter contain more gaps and longer overlaps than have been found for same-language interactions. It also shows that the type of turn produced by the primary speaker (question vs. non-question), the primary speaker’s speech rate, and, to a certain extent, turn duration affect the interpreter’s turn-taking speed. Thus, the present study contributes to a better understanding of the processes that impact the timing of turn-taking in face-to-face dialogue interpreting.

The Defender's Vision-Gaze Behavior of One-on-One Defenders in Basketball.

In fast-paced team sports, anticipation is one important element in defense strategies. The primary objective of this study was to examine the recommendation for action and use of defensive gaze strategies by defensive players in basketball. Four national-level expert-basketball coaches were interviewed and a field study with mobile eye-tracking devices was conducted on 16 expert and 16 novice players defending in a one-on-one situation. Differences in relative fixation times between experts and novices were elaborated for the predetermined gaze zones-head, ball, torso, and feet-as given by the expert coaches. This was done for three phases of the movement sequence: receiving, dribbling, and shooting. The results of the interviews with expert coaches indicated that the existing coaching doctrine instructs players to look at the torso of an opponent to avoid being vulnerable to fakes. Surprisingly, our findings with the players showed a discrepancy in the evaluated gaze behavior of the experts and novices. For the receiving and dribbling phase, experts mainly fixated their gaze on the head while novices focused on the ball. For the final shooting phase, both the groups mainly fixated their gaze on the ball. Fixating the gaze on the ball or head makes the player potentially vulnerable to deceptive movements, as video-based research has shown. Expert coaches also indicated that peripheral vision is of importance to defenders, contradicting the existing assumption in the literature that focusing on the task-relevant areas is key for anticipation performance.

Adaptations in Visual Search Behaviour as a Function of Expertise in Rugby Union Players Completing Attacking Scenarios.

The current study investigated the adaptations which occur in visual search behaviour as a function of expertise in rugby union players when completing attacking scenarios. Ten experienced players (EP) and ten novice players (NP) completed 2 vs. 1 attacking game scenarios. Starting with the ball in hand and wearing a mobile eye tracker throughout, participants were required to score a try against a defender. The scenarios allowed for a pass to their supporting player (Spin Pass or Switch) or trying to run past the defender (Take-Player-On or Dummy Switch). No between group differences were found in fixating on the supporting attacking player (p > 0.05). However, EP increased the length (p = 0.008) and frequency (p = 0.004) looking at the area immediately ahead of the supporting player, particularly when executing a spin pass. NP fixated longer (p = 0.005) and more frequently (p = 0.032) at the defender, whilst EP fixated more frequently in the space the supporting player would run into in Switch and Dummy Switch scenarios (p = 0.025). More successful passes were completed and tries scored by EP compared to NP (p = 0.001). Differences in visual search behaviour between experienced and NP suggest that the experts extract information from areas directly related to guiding the motor action; the space immediately ahead of the support player to pass the ball in. Contrastingly, novices use a more allocentric perspective where the actions from the defender are used to guide their motor actions.

Early lifetime experience of urban living predicts social attention in real world crowds

More than half of the world's population is currently living in cities, with more and more people moving to densely populated areas. The experience of growing up and living in crowded environments might influence the way we explore our social environment, mainly how we attend to others. Yet, we know little about how urbanicity affects this vital function of our social life. In two studies, we use mobile eye-tracking to measure participants' social attention, while walking through a shopping mall. Results show that social density of participants' native place impacts how frequently they look at passing strangers. People who experienced more city living from birth to early adolescence, attend more to strangers' faces than their rural counterparts. Our findings demonstrate that the early experience of urban upbringing configures social attention in adulthood. The urbanicity-related bias towards social gazing might reflect a more efficient processing of social information in urban natives.