Mixed Farming Systems Research Articles

Assessment of Grazing Land and Livestock Feed Balance in Gummara-Rib Watershed, Ethiopia

Ethiopia has the largest animal population in Africa. Next to crop production, the livestock sector has a great potential to assist the socio-economic development and transformation of the country. Studies indicate that the livestock sector accounts for about 40% of agricultural GDP and 20% of the total GDP. Amhara Region contributes 30% of the country’s livestock population. At the regional level, livestock production is an integral part of the mixed farming system, contributing 22% and 12.5% from agricultural GDP and total GDP, respectively. Though livestock play a great role to rural livelihoods, there are a number of challenges in this sector. A mix of quantitative and qualitative data collection methods were employed to generate the required information. The overall land use/ land cover change analysis of the Landsat image of the year 1986 and 2013 showed that grazing land has declined drastically by 30.52 %. However, cultivated land has rapidly increased by 11.65%. Moreover, the remaining percentage of grassland use type was changed in to degraded grassland, degraded shrubby bush land, urban Settlement, and eucalyptus woodland. On the other hand, the total dry matter (DM) requirement was estimated to be 1,126,269.54 ton/year. Moreover, feed supply from pastureland, aftermath grazing and crop residues were estimated to be 852,700.30 tons of DM. This shows that the available feed/forage addressed only 72% and 28% the annual DM still required for livestock feeding in Gummara-Rib watershed. Based on this study, it is highly recommended that increase the productivity of the local breeds appropriate management practices and policy interventions should be made, especially on forage development and breed quality improvement. The mean livestock holding should be adjusted with feed availability to minimize its impacts on grazing land degradation and for better productivity.

Grain Productivity, Fertilizer Response and Nutrient Balance of Farming Systems in Tigray, Ethiopia: A Multi‐Perspective View in Relation to Soil Fertility Degradation

AbstractApplication of nutrients is an important way to increase crop productivity. In our study area, Tigray, development agents recommend fertilizer application to boost productivity and counteract nutrient depletion. We analysed soil fertility from different perspectives, using responses and nutrient balances on the basis of on‐farm experimentation. Three perspectives, embedded in the People–Planet–Profit framework and with different temporal and spatial scales and ownership, were considered. Taking a farmer perspective, we found no significant differences in response between recommended and current farmer practices. Taking an agronomist perspective, phosphorus seemed to limit productivity. It however also became obvious that closing nutrient balances at field scale to achieve sustainability is difficult. Only by using considerable amounts of manure and at the cost of productivity this can be achieved. From a long‐term environmentalist perspective, the traditional agricultural system seems sustainable in combining mixed farming and relatively low yields. We conclude that depending on the perspective taken, different interventions will be appropriate. All perspectives however indicate that gradually strengthening the existing mixed farming system by using fertilizers, organic manure and legume fallows supports crop productivity while maintaining other aspects of sustainability such as food security and profitability. In line with this, our analysis of different perspectives suggests that in our study area, farmers will only consider transitions with low risk and this specifically should be addressed in proposing pathways of transition. In processes where stakeholders with different perspectives cooperate, it is important to be aware and make use of the possibilities of comparable multi‐perspective analyses. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Carbon Footprint and Sustainability of the Smallholder Agricultural Production Systems in Ethiopia

Sustainability of an agricultural system depends on its carbon (C) footprint. Thus, major C-inputs and C-outputs of the smallholder crop-livestock mixed farming systems in Ethiopia were collated and their C-equivalence and sustainability indices (CSI) were computed. C-based inputs increased twofold from the lowest (0.32TgCeq y−1) in 1994 to the highest (0.62TgCeq y−1) in 2010. Similarly, total C-output increased linearly from the lowest (30TgCeq y−1) in 1994 to the highest (62TgCeq y−1) in 2010 and 2011. Livestock contributed much of the C-output. Further, the average rate of increase in C-output from 1994 to 1999 was marginal, i.e., 0.67TgCeq y−1, but the 11-year average rate of increase from 2000 to 2011 was relatively higher, i.e., 2.2TgCeq y−1. The relationship between annual total C-based input and output was strong (r2 = 0.88; P < 0.001). The CSI of the smallholder agricultural production systems in Ethiopia was relatively high, with the 18-year average value being ˜110 when compared with other regions.

A review of organic carbon accumulation in soils within the agricultural context of southern New South Wales, Australia

The accumulation of carbon (C) in soil as organic matter (SOM) is considered to be a win–win situation for agriculture and the environment. Retention of crop and pasture residues should contribute to this accumulation of organic C in soil. However the retention of crop stubble has not necessarily resulted in increases in soil organic matter in long term field trials in southern New South Wales (NSW), Australia. Even under permanent pasture, annual or perennial, the rates of accumulation of soil organic matter are only about 500kg C/ha/year at best in the environment of southern NSW. Hence the C accumulation rates in soil are not likely to generate a significant income stream from C trading. Further, in the mixed farming systems of the inland areas, the traditional rotation has relied upon the build up of organic matter during the pasture phase and the mineralisation of nitrogen (N) (and hence C) during the cropping phase. A change from this system requires increased reliance on the use of N fertiliser. Either way, an additional problem is that the accumulation of organic matter during a pasture phase, or the use of N fertiliser, is commonly associated with soil acidification, requiring the application of limestone and the release of CO2 in order to maintain agricultural productivity. In addition to these soil based processes, the climatic variability that is commonly experienced in the semi-arid environment of southern NSW means that year to year variability in dry matter return to soil and in decomposition rates of residues will be relatively large. The net result is that the signal to noise ratio of any trend in SOM accumulation is low.

Evidence on the environmental impacts of farm land abandonment in high altitude/mountain regions: a systematic map

Abstract Background Many ecosystems have developed in the presence of agriculture and cessation of management resulting from land abandonment can have significant ecological impacts. Around 56 percent of the utilised agricultural area of the European Union is classified as ‘less-favourable areas’ and much of this is mountainous. The small-scale and extensively managed farmlands that are common in mountain areas are particularly vulnerable to marginalisation and abandonment. We conducted the first systematic global mapping of evidence to inform stakeholders and policy makers of the potential impacts of farm land abandonment in mountain areas. Methods Evidence was collated from a range of academic literature databases and grey literature sources. Identified articles (8,489) were screened for relevance at title, abstract and full text using predefined inclusion criteria set out in a published protocol. Relevant studies (165 across 189 articles) were then mapped using predefined coding and critically appraised for internal validity (i.e. susceptibility to bias). Results Mapping identified a number of interesting themes in the evidence base: the majority of research was undertaken in arable and mixed farming systems; large evidence bases were found in China, Spain and Italy; studies were mostly observational with spatial/successional comparators; biodiversity, soil and vegetation were most frequently studied. Several knowledge gaps were identified: including outcomes (socioeconomics and environmental hazards), regions (key mountain ranges including the Himalaya), and specific outcome-region groups (e.g. vegetation and soil measures in the UK). Several deficiencies in methodology were identified across studies: a lack of replication; non-random sample selection; lack of methodological detail (including details of spatial scale, replication, and sample selection). Discussion Systematic mapping has produced a searchable database of studies relating to high altitude farmland abandonment. The map identifies a number of potential areas for fruitful future synthesis, for example research on biodiversity, soil and vegetation in the Loess Hilly Plateau in China, and soil research in Spain. Such synthesis would be rapid given the effort expended here in identifying and screening relevant articles. It also points to several areas that were under-represented in the literature, such as natural hazards (avalanche, fire and flood risk), that would potentially benefit from increased primary research.

Management of harvested C in smallholder mixed farming in Ethiopia

Increasing the share of the harvested C ending up in food and returned to soil could contribute to climate change mitigation and food security. The aim of this study was to quantify empirically the proportion of the harvested C ending up in food and soil and the C losses occurring when managing harvested C in smallholder mixed farming systems in Ethiopia. Four case farms were explored; one resource-limited and one better-off farm, in two socio-ecologically contrasting regions important for food production. Material flow analysis (MFA) was used to determine the flows of harvested C. The losses of harvested C, from the livestock, compost and household energy use were quantified based on C balances. The C flows were estimated as means for two growing seasons, 2008/2009 and 2009/2010, with low and average precipitation, respectively. Analysis was founded on semi-structured interviews and sampling, supplemented with information from databases and the literature. From the total harvested C, 9–16% was allocated to food and 4–12% to agricultural soil. Since the residues are utilized apart from human excreta with a negligible significance, increasing the proportion of harvested C used for food and returned to soil is in these farming systems only possible by reducing the gaseous C losses. The largest losses of the harvested C occur through biomass burning (15–60%), animal metabolism (16–44%) and composting (5–23%). The large C loss through the replaceable residue burning seems to offer the most accessible remedy to smallholder management of harvested C. Consequently, the proportion of harvested C used for fuel appears as the main determinant for the proportion of harvested C ending up in soil and food. Energy substitutes for manure and straw, improved manure management and more stable food and fodder supply to reduce the requisite number of animals are all keys to close C cycles in the farming systems. Quantification of the organic C flows using MFA is useful in revealing the allocation of harvested C and losses occurring in its management in farming systems when measurement of gaseous emissions and leaching are not feasible.

Economic impact of foot and mouth disease outbreaks on smallholder farmers in Ethiopia

Foot and mouth disease is endemic in Ethiopia with occurrences of several outbreaks every year. Quantitative information about the impact of the disease on smallholder farming systems in the country is, however, scarce. This study presents a quantitative assessment of the clinical and direct economic impacts of foot and mouth disease outbreaks on household level in smallholder livestock farming systems. Impacts were assessed based on data obtained from case outbreaks in cattle in crop–livestock mixed and pastoral smallholder farming systems that occurred in 2012 and 2013. Data were collected by using questionnaires administered to 512 smallholder farmers in six districts within two administrate zones that represent the two smallholder farming systems. Foot and mouth disease morbidity rates of 85.2% and 94.9% at herd level; and 74.3% and 60.8% at animal level in the affected herds were determined for crop–livestock mixed system and pastoral system, respectively. The overall and calf specific mortality rates were 2.4% and 9.7% for the crop–livestock mixed system, and 0.7% and 2.6% for the pastoral system, respectively. Herd level morbidity rate was statistically significantly higher in the pastoral system than in the crop–livestock mixed system (P<0.001). The economic losses of foot and mouth disease outbreak due to milk loss, draft power loss and mortality were on average USD 76 per affected herd and USD 9.8 per head of cattle in the affected herds in crop–livestock mixed system; and USD 174 per affected herd and USD 5.3 per head of cattle in the affected herds in the pastoral system. The herd level economic losses were statistically significantly higher for the pastoral system than for the crop–livestock mixed system (P<0.001). The major loss due to the disease occurred as a result of milk losses and draft power losses whereas mortality losses were relatively low. Although the presented estimates on the economic losses accounted only for the visible direct impacts of the disease on herd level, these conservative estimates signify a potential socioeconomic gain from a control intervention.

A Participatory Framework to Identify Gross National Happiness Issues for the Development of Smallholder Mixed Farming Systems in Bhutan

This paper presents a participatory methodological framework to identify Gross National Happiness (GNH) issues at the smallholder level in Bhutan. GNH is a development paradigm of Bhutan that has increasingly drawn international attention. Its four pillars are sustainable and equitable socioeconomic development, preservation of the environment, preservation and promotion of culture, and promotion of good governance. Since GNH is usually discussed at the national level, its domains and indicators have been defined through a top-down intellectual exercise, with possibly limited relevance of the major issues for most rural Bhutanese, which represent 69 percent of the country’s population. The methodology applied in this study was useful in identifying key GNH issues from a systems perspective at the smallholder level. Socioeconomic development and the environmental aspects were found to be the pertinent issues. The study also revealed trade-offs and dependencies among the four GNH pillars and their indicators. Inclusive policies are needed to address the concerns of smallholder farmers. If GNH is to work for the present and future generations, then it is essential to embrace the GNH issues of smallholder farmers who compose the backbone of the Bhutanese population. Further, the GNH concept is currently a mix of issues and indicators. Translating the issues identified by the study into indicators is required to properly evaluate the progress at the farm level and to support GNH policy development.

Integrated crop and livestock systems in Western Europe and South America: A review

For many years, we have seen an increasing specialization of agricultural systems and territories, with a clear separation between territories with very high animal densities and those devoted to the growing of annual crops. This development is explained by market and sector economic logic and has been reinforced by the availability of low-cost inputs and animal housing systems based on direct grazing not requiring straw. It has, however, also involved negative environmental impacts and, in some cases, the impoverishment of soil fertility, a loss of biodiversity, and excesses of N and P, leading to eutrophication and hot spots of ammonia emission in livestock-breeding territories. Having recapped the mechanisms behind the specialization of systems and territories, we examined the extent to which the development of innovative mixed-farming systems that reconnect livestock and crop production on various territorial scales (farm, district, region) can reduce the negative impacts of agriculture on the environment, produce valuable ecosystem services and achieve acceptable economic efficiency for farming enterprises. Examples from temperate regions will be used to show that mixed-farming systems increase the possibilities of better recycling of nutrients within systems, limiting recourse to the purchase of increasingly expensive inputs and safeguarding the biodiversity of agricultural ecosystems.

Farmers' knowledge and perceptions of the stunting disease of Napier grass in Western Kenya

Production of Napier grass, Pennisetum purpureum, the most important livestock fodder in Western Kenya, is severely constrained by Napier stunt (Ns) disease. Understanding farmers' knowledge, perceptions and practices is a prerequisite to establishing an effective disease management approach. Using a random sample of 150 farmers drawn from Bungoma, Busia and Teso districts of Western Kenya, this study sought to: (i) assess farmers' perceptions and knowledge of Ns disease, including its effects on the smallholder dairy industry; (ii) record farmers' current practices in managing Ns disease; and (iii) identify Ns disease management challenges and intervention opportunities in order to develop an efficient integrated disease management approach. The majority (86·7%) of the farmers were aware of Ns disease and observed that it was spreading rapidly in the region, which was perfectly predicted by farmers' access to agricultural information (marginal effect = 0·164), indicating a need for extension platforms for knowledge sharing among the industry stakeholders. The disease had affected Napier grass yields so most farmers could not feed their livestock on the amounts they produced, and they were buying Napier grass. Those who relied on income from selling Napier grass received less due to loss in productivity. Milk production had reduced by over 35%. The cause of the disease was unknown to the farmers, with no effective disease management strategy available to them. An integrated disease management approach needs to be developed to fit within the mixed farming systems, supported by simple decision aids.

Improving productive performance of crossbred cattle in cold arid conditions of Kargil through UMMB supplementation

The study was carried-out to assess the response of urea molasses mineral block (UMMB) supplementation on milk yield and cost effectiveness with lactating crossbred cows, maintained under smallholder mixed farming system at cold arid conditions, Kargil. Crossbred cows (20) in early to mid lactation were selected; 10 cows were given free access to UMMB in addition to normal ration and the other 10 cows served as control. Supplementation of UMMB licks significantly increased feed intake, milk yield and maintained live weight and body condition score of the cows. UMMB improved general health of the animals with enhanced cash benefit of over ` 41.1/cow/day. The UMMB supplementation technology was found a cost-effective approach to maximize the utilization of locally available feed resources which are scarce in the region as it remains covered with snow and cutoff from rest of world for 6 months.

Allelopathic interaction of pepper (Capsicum annuum) and pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) intercropped

Intercropping is common practice in many regions of Tunisia, particularly in Cap-Bon where different crops such as tomato, pepper, cucumber, peanut, corn, pearl millet and sorghum are grown together in the same field and at the same time for self-sufficiency. A number of these crops and vegetables are known for their allelopathic activities. The interaction between plants could be within the individuals of the same species (intraspecific interaction or autotoxicity) or between different species (interspecific interaction or teletotoxicity). Little is known about allelopathic interaction of some of these intercropped plants in mixed farming systems in our local conditions. Therefore, the objectives of the present investigation are to evaluate, under laboratory condition, the allelopathic effect of mixed crops, which interacted positively or negatively when cultivated together in the same field. Two plant species were used to study the effects of their aqueous extract on germination and growth of each other (pepper and pearl millet). The results suggested that aqueous extracts from shoots and roots significantly inhibited germination and seedling growth and the inhibitory effects were increased proportionally with the extract concentration. The shoot and root aqueous extract also exhibited intraspecific and interspecific allelopathy. Generally, it was observed that roots were more toxic than shoots. For root extract, the highest inhibition percentage was gained from the effect of pearl millet on pepper (40%) and highest autotoxicity was observed from pearl millet (36%). The effect of shoot extract on germination indicated that the highest reduction (55%) was obtained from pepper shoot extract on pearl millet and highest autotoxicity was observed from pepper which reached (45%). In most cases autotoxicity appeared to be more severe than teletotoxicity, on seed germination of the two intercropped plant species. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/ije.v3i1.9940 International Journal of Environment Vol.3(1) 2014: 32-40

Factors Affecting the Adoption and Intensity of Use of Improved Forages in North East Highlands of Ethiopia

Analysis of crop-livestock integration aims at understanding the existing interactions between crops and livestock and assessing their potential for improvement in smallholders' farming systems. The objective of this study was to identify factors affecting the probability of adoption and intensity of use of improved forage technologies in mixed farming systems in two districts of south Wollo zone, in Ethiopia. A double hurdle model was employed using data collected from randomly selected 252 farmers between July 2009 and November 2009. The study revealed low utilization of improved forage seed which covered only 1.3% of total cultivated land in Ethiopia. The results of the study provided empirical evidence of a positive impact of extension and credit service in enhancing the probability of adoption of improved forage technologies. The intensity of use of improved forage in the study area was influenced by labour available, size of livestock ownership and farm size. Physical characteristics like distance from farmers’ home to all weather roads, markets and input supply played a critical role in the adoption of improved forage technologies. Therefore, the results of the study suggest that the adoption of improved forage should be enhanced by raising farm household asset formation, and providing extension and credit services.

Time of sowing and the presence of a cover-crop determine the productivity and persistence of perennial pastures in mixed farming systems

Incorporation of perennial pastures into cropping rotations can improve whole-farm productivity, profitability and sustainability of mixed farming systems in southern Australia. However, success in establishing perennial pastures depends on choice of species, time of sowing, method of establishment, seasonal conditions, and whether sowing is under a cover-crop. Field experiments were sown from 2008 to 2010 to determine effects of sowing time and the presence of a cover-crop on the performance of four perennial pasture species, lucerne (Medicago sativa L.), chicory (Cichorium intybus L.), phalaris (Phalaris aquatica L.) and cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata L.), at Yerong Creek, New South Wales (NSW). Results showed that lucerne was the most productive pasture, followed by chicory and phalaris, with cocksfoot being the poorest performer. Under favourable seasonal conditions, lucerne and chicory pastures produced 29.3 and 25.0 t ha–1 of total dry matter (DM), comprising 71% and 52%, respectively, of sown perennial species in the sward in their second growing season, when sown in autumn. Spring-sown pastures produced 24.6 and 18.3 t ha–1 of total DM in the second season, with 55% and 47% of sown species in the sward being lucerne and chicory, respectively. However, spring-sown pastures contained a very low proportion of subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneum L.) in the sward in the first 2 years, despite efforts to broadcast seeds at the break of season in the following year. It is recommended that non-legume perennial species, such as chicory and phalaris, be sown in autumn with companion annual legumes until methods are developed and tested to establish annual legumes reliably in spring. However, lucerne can be established in autumn or spring because it can fix its own nitrogen and is not reliant on a companion legume. Cocksfoot cv. Kasbah, in general, appears less suitable than the other perennial species for this medium-rainfall environment in southern NSW. Our study showed that pastures sown without a cover-crop had the most reliable establishment, whereas pastures sown with a cover-crop in a dry year had poor establishment or total failure, as well as a significant reduction of grain yield from the cover-crop. In a wet year, pastures established satisfactorily under a cover-crop; however, growth of the cover-crop still suppressed pasture DM production in subsequent years. Research is under way to model our data to determine the likely financial implications of establishing perennial pastures under cover-crops.

Modelling the effect on stocking rate and lamb production of allowing ewes to graze a dual-purpose wheat crop in southern New South Wales

Slow pasture growth rates during winter limit the potential gross margins from autumn and early winter lambing in southern New South Wales (NSW) by limiting stocking rates and/or increasing supplementary feed requirements. Dual-purpose crops can reduce the winter feed gap in mixed-farming systems by increasing the available feed in winter. The simulation software AusFarm was used to model a mixed-farming system at Wagga Wagga with Merino ewes joined to terminal sires and grazing lucerne-subterranean clover pasture over a 41-year period. A paddock of dual-purpose wheat was then added to the system, and ewes were allowed to graze the wheat crop when feed on offer reached 850 kg DM/ha and before GS31. Weaned lambs were sold after late August if lamb growth rates fell below 20 g/head.day, mean lamb weight reached 45 kg or production feeding of lambs was required. Lambing in June resulted in the highest median gross margin whether or not ewes were able to graze the wheat crop during winter. Grazing of a dual-purpose wheat crop resulted in greater proportional increases in gross margins as stocking rate was increased, increased lamb production and reduced supplementary feeding costs, and reduced interannual variability in gross margin returns.

Transition to self-sufficient mixed crop–dairy farming systems

AbstractWhile plains favorable to agriculture are still dominated by specialized and intensive agriculture, self-sufficient mixed crop-dairy farming systems increasingly attract policy makers' and scientists' attention. Owing to their limited use of purchased inputs, they can contribute to reducing the environmental impact of agriculture. Furthermore, self-sufficient farming tends to be linked with a search for autonomy in decision-making, i.e., farmers developing their own technical reference framework. Such farming systems can thus also contribute to alternative development pathways of rural territories. In this paper, we analyze how ten intensive mixed crop–dairy farms have progressively evolved toward more self-sufficient and autonomous systems. Through formalizing farmers' transitionin action, we identified 34 tools that the farmers implemented making them reflect on their farming system, shift socio-professional networks, reorganize work routines, and steer the evolution of their production practices. For example, they created temporary pastures in crop rotation, introduced rotational pastures, observed their herds to adjust their feed and keep the animals in good health, and they limited expenditures to manage their cash flow. Which tools were used and when they were used depends on what is meaningful to them at various stages of the transition. Our analysis of transitionsin actionhas three original features: it is centered on the transition as perceived by the actors who experience and manage it; it proposes a long-term conceptualization of the dynamics of farming systems, based on the farmer's initiative and creativity; and it highlights tools implemented by farmers during the transition to self-sufficiency and autonomy.

Managing nutrient in organic farming system: reliance on livestock production for nutrient management of arable farmland

Organic agriculture is a production system which relies on ecosystem management and ecological processes rather than on the external flow of agricultural inputs. The development of the organic sector has induced a spatial decoupling of livestock and crop production. This has increased the flow of nutrients that occurs between farms compared to what happens within individual farms. Organic systems have replaced synthetic inputs with site-specific management practices to balance input and output nutrients to ensure short-term productivity and long-term sustainability. This paper addresses the nutrient management of mixed and specialized farming systems, with a special emphasis on the reliance on livestock production for the nutrient management of arable farmland. We assessed the nutrient budgets of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) of 28 organic farms selected according to livestock density from three French counties. The farms were classified as stockless, mixed, and cattle farming systems. A soil surface nutrient budget was calculated for each farm based on inputs (N fixation, excreta, and manure) and outputs (grazing offtake, harvests) on annual crops and grasslands. Inputs due to N atmospheric deposition and seeds and losses due to leaching and volatilization were not considered in this study. Nutrient budgets of the 28 farms revealed N, P, and K deficits, although disparities between farming systems and their geographical location were also observed. Stockless farms presented high N deficit whereas mixed and livestock farming systems presented lower deficits (close to equilibrium) or even surpluses in a county with a high density of livestock farms. Differences between farming systems in terms of P and K budgets followed the same trend, but regional specificities appeared significant in stockless and livestock systems (related to the size of farms and the stocking rate). None of the farms purchased off-farm organic fertilizers when exchanges of manures and straw were observed at the regional scale. When livestock is present on the farm, the nutrient resources came mainly from recycling internal resources (manures, excreta, and N fixation), whereas stockless farming systems purchased organic manure from neighboring farms (14 to 58 % of total N inputs, 10 to 100 % of total P and K inputs). The sustainability of stockless organic farming systems is questioned, noticeably those that were located in regions where resources of organic matter are scarce. Only farming systems producing large quantities of manure or which purchased feed showed balanced nutrient budgets.

Sheep Production in the Mixed-Farming Systems of Mexico: Where Are the Women?

• Mexican scholarship has often obscured women’s contributions to small-scale sheep production by using imprecise descriptions as to who producers are, what they do, and why. Such women can become invisible to researchers and policy makers. • A gender-based approach is needed to raise the profile of these women. This could include clarifying how and why sheep-production duties are allocated between women and men in households and understanding how and why policies differentially affect women and men in terms of their access to productive resources and entitlement programs. • Mexico needs to increase sheep productivity. Women are key stakeholders in this process. Production interventions could be facilitated by targeting women clients and making better use of their knowledge and practical experience. Perspectiva desde el campo: • La ciencia veterinaria mexicana ha invisibilizado la contribución femenina a la producción ovina de pequeña escala, al dejar de lado el análisis de quiénes son los productores, qué hacen y por qué. • Se requiere un enfoque de género para visibilizar a estas mujeres. El uso de dicho enfoque ayudará a entender la asignación de labores entre hombres y mujeres así como el impacto diferenciado de la política pública en términos del acceso a recursos productivos y programas de apoyo. • México necesita aumentar su producción ovina. Las mujeres son actoras clave en este proceso. Para aumentar el éxito de las intervenciones dirigidas a este objetivo, es necesario partir de los conocimientos y experiencias prácticas de las mujeres.

Crop and livestock production for dual-purpose winter canola (Brassica napus) in the high-rainfall zone of south-eastern Australia

Dual-purpose use of canola (Brassica napus) for forage in winter before seed production is a practice recently developed in southern Australia. The feasibility for dual-purpose spring canola (B. napus annua) in the medium-rainfall zone (450–650mm) has been demonstrated commercially, with significant adoption. Testing of later-maturing, dual-purpose winter canola (B. napus biennis) in long-season, high-rainfall areas (>650mm) has been restricted to mechanical defoliation or crash grazing. We conducted a series of six field experiments to evaluate the crop and livestock productivity of dual-purpose winter canola, involving a variety of stocking rates, grazing regimens and different cultivars at Canberra, ACT, and Young, NSW, in south-eastern Australia in 2007 and 2008. European winter canola cultivars sown between 21 March and 21 April provided 800–1100 dry sheep equivalent (DSE) grazing days/ha in Canberra and 1550–2600 DSE grazing days/ha in Young with little impact on subsequent yield (range 2.6–5.8t/ha), provided the sheep were removed from crops prior to bud elongation. Grazing occurred between 18 June and 1 September in Canberra and between 16 June and 14 August in Young and generally had no effect on harvest index or oil content. High stocking rates for short duration (126DSE/ha for 7 days) reduced sheep live-weight gains and meat production by ∼50% (110g/day; 92kg/ha) compared with stocking rates of low (22DSE/ha for 47 days) or moderate (43DSE/ha for 22 days) stocking rates (mean 220g/day; 182kg/ha) despite similar overall grazing pressure (882–1034 DSE grazing days/ha). The flexibility in sowing date and grazing times afforded by the vernalisation characteristics of winter canola make it an ideal, flexible option in high-rainfall mixed-farming systems. Winter canola could complement or even replace the traditional later-sown spring cultivars (for dual-purpose and/or grain-only production) in areas with high rainfall (>650mm) where early sowing opportunities (March) and cooler spring temperatures can maximise yield. Our results demonstrate significant potential for high livestock production and high grain and oil yield from dual-purpose winter canola in high-rainfall environments.

Intensification of conservation agriculture systems for increased livestock feed and maize production in Zimbabwe

Livestock and crops are key components of mixed farming systems and are a source of household food and income. However, mixed farming systems face livestock feed shortages and low soil productivity challenges. Conservation agriculture (CA) systems based on minimum soil disturbance, crop residue retention and crop rotations offer an opportunity to grow both fodder and food crops on the available land to improve productivity and crop output per-unit area. A four-year experiment involving maize monocropping as control treatment and four relay or intercropping treatments with different legume and fodder crops was set up on contrasting soils in Zimbabwe. Lablab was superior in biomass production compared with radish on both soil types. On the clay soil, continuous maize, sole lablab, sole radish, maize/lablab relay and radish/common beans relay treatments produced similar biomass when soil moisture was adequate. When soil moisture was limiting, lablab produced more biomass than continuous maize, radish, maize/lablab relay and radish/beans relay treatments on clay soil. On sandy soils, lablab produced more biomass than continuous maize, radish, maize/lablab relay and radish/beans relay treatments. Leguminous and non-leguminous fodder crops can be grown successfully in CA systems that are being promoted in the mixed crop/livestock farming systems of southern Africa.