Mixed Farming Systems Research Articles

Maximization of fertility transfers from rangeland to cropland: The contribution of control theory

In traditional mixed farming systems, soil fertility in cropland relies on the transfer of fertility from rangeland through the transfer of manure produced by livestock that grazes in rangeland. In this work, we introduce a simple meta-ecosystem model in which the mixed farming system is represented by a cropland sub-system connected to a rangeland sub-system by nutrient fluxes. The livestock plays the role of nutrient-pump from the rangeland sub-system to the cropland sub-system. We use this model to study how spatial organization and practices of livestock management such as the control of grazing pressure and night corralling can help optimize both nutrient transfers and crop production.We argue that addressing the optimization of crop production requires different methods, depending on whether the agricultural practice in focus is constant or variable over time. We first used classical optimization methods at equilibrium to address optimization when the grazing pressure was assumed to be constant over time. Second, we address optimization for a more realistic configuration of our model, where grazing pressure was assumed to vary over the course of a year. In this case, we used methods developed in the field of the control theory. Classical methods showed the existence of an optimal level of constant grazing pressure that maximizes the transfers from rangeland to cropland, leading to the maximization of crop production. Control methods showed that by varying the grazing pressure adequately an additional gain of production is possible, with higher crop production and lower nutrient transfer from rangeland to cropland. This additional gain arises from the fact that the requirement of nutrient by crops is variable along the year. Consequently, a constant adjustment of the grazing pressure allows a better match between nutrient transfer and nutrient requirement over time, leading to a substantial gain of crop biomass. Our results provide new insights for a “smarter” management of fertility transfers leading to higher crop production with less rangeland surface.

Changing Patterns of Tree Cover in a Tropical Highland Region and Implications for Food, Energy, and Water Resources

Abstract The Blue Nile Highlands of Ethiopia are a densely populated, predominantly rural region dominated by smallholder crop-livestock mixed farming systems. Population growth, coupled with low productivity, have long posed a threat to natural forest ecosystems in the region, as trees have been removed for fuel wood and to clear area for grazing or crop production. In recent years, however, there has been a trend to replace cropland with eucalyptus plantations. This change has major implications for the hydrology, soils, and agricultural economy of the region. This study examines changes in tree cover for a highland area at the center of the Blue Nile Highlands. Landsat imagery from 1986-2017 is applied to characterize changing tree cover patterns over space and time. We find that total tree cover in this highland region has shifted dramatically over the past 30 years. Between 1987 and 1999 there was dramatic loss of tree cover, particularly in areas of natural vegetation at high and low elevation. This period coincided with the fall of the Derg government and the transition to the current political system. In the period since 1999 there has been an increase in tree cover, with rapid gains in recent years. This increase has taken two distinct forms: regrowth in previously forested areas, due in part to active conservation measures, and the establishment of eucalyptus plantations in mid-elevation zones. The ecological and economic implications of these two types of tree cover—protected forest vs. woodlot plantations—are quite distinct, with plantation forestry providing biomass energy at a cost to food production and water resources. Effective monitoring of these changes is important for the ongoing development and implementation of effective land use policy in the region.

Water footprint assessment of sheep farming systems based on farm survey data

Water scarcity is among the main challenges making vulnerable the livestock farming systems in drylands. The water footprint (WF) indicator was proposed as a metric to measure the impacts of livestock production on freshwater resources. Therefore, this study aimed to assess water use in five different Tunisian sheep production systems using the Water Footprint Network methodology. The primary data were obtained from 1050 sheep farms located in 13 Tunisian provinces. A multivariate analysis was performed to characterize the different farming systems. A validation step of the WF modeled values of sheep meat was conducted in 12 sheep farms belonging to two different farming systems. This was done through year-round monitoring of on-farm practices using water metres and recording equipment’s taking into account the direct and indirect water use. The typology analysis came up with five sheep farming systems that are the mixed sheep-cereal (MSC), the agro-sylvo-pastoral (ASP), the agro-pastoral (AP), the extensive agro-pastoral (EAP) and the mixed sheep-olive tree farming systems. The WF of sheep meat produced under the target farming systems ranged from 8654 to 13 056 l/kg live weight. The evaluation of WF of five different sheep production systems figured out that sheep raised under the EAP farming system had the greatest WF per ton of live animal. However, the ASP farming system exhibited the lowest WF. Water used to grow feedstuffs for sheep production accounts for 98% of the total WF of sheep. The green WF accounts for more than 92% of the total WF in all farming systems. Results of monitoring water use at farm scale show that the modeled values of WF are overestimated by an average of 23.3% and 24.1% for the selected farms assigned to the MSC and AP farming systems, respectively. Water use for sheep production is high in most of the Tunisian farms. Therefore, the general assumption that ‘meat production is a driver of water scarcity’ is supported and should be considered as an important focal point in agricultural and water policies. Particular attention should be given to forage crops with low WFs and high contribution to dry matter to provide ration with low WF. The efficient use of green water along the meat value chain is essential to minimize the depletion of blue water resources and to reduce the economic dependency on virtual water through the import of feedstuffs.

Which mixed crop-animal farming system to reach pesticides use reduction goals?

Which mixed crop-animal farming system to reach pesticides use reduction goals?

Scope and strategies for genetic improvement in vegetable crop-plants under high temperature and abiotic stressed climate of Rajasthan: A gap analysis

Un-exploited, under-scored and native crop-plants of horticultural significance have enormous potential in providing nutrition rich food and social security to inhabitants of desert and tribal areas of the north-western India. While conducting surveys and explorations for horticultural perspective, and examining distinctness of hot arid, semi-arid and sub-humid climate of Rajasthan from 1994 – 2004, it was concluded that un-availability of apposite crop–genotypes and production techniques are two major constraints which limiting dry-land vegetable promotion. Traditionally, kachri, kakadia, mateera, tinda and guar-phali ensuring native vegetable produce, besides, khejri (Prosopis cineraria) is playing vital role in long-established mixed farming systems of arid farm-lands. In addition, native land-races of kakri, kheera, kundru, kakoda, cowpea, sem-phali and okra are monsoon supported vegetable harvest in the semi-arid and tribal areas of state. Establishment of NRCAH during 1993 at Bikaner supported systematic research on collection, characterization and conservation of native vegetable crop-plants as regional diversity, and further work was intensified on germplasm utilization in particular for high temperature and abiotic stresses tolerant breeding. The crop-genotype studies over 45 vegetables at CIAH demonstrated that there is magnificent scope in obtaining higher marketable and quality yields, provided better and trait-specific genotypes and production site management (HBCPSMA) as integrated concept for vegetable cultivation under hot arid environment. Thus, conserving germplasm, developing genotypes and newer technological advancement in arid vegetables is an advantage towards better nutrition and farmer’s income under dry-land conditions.

Flexible adoption of conservation agriculture principles: practices of care and the management of crop residue in Australian mixed farming systems

ABSTRACTThis paper applies concepts from the sociological literature on ‘practices of care’ to investigate why flexibility is important for farmers in the adoption of conservation agriculture (CA) principles, and, crucially, how farmers integrate CA principles into their existing practices. Drawing on qualitative data from six mixed farming regions in South Eastern Australia, the paper discusses how a specific dimension of CA – crop residue retention – is integrated in the context of biophysical and material challenges, and practices of stubble burning. Farmers viewed burning as increasingly incompatible with their desire to be recognised as good land managers. Yet, shifting to full crop residue retention was perceived as posing challenges for their farming system and compromising farmers’ capacity to manage seasonal variations in pests, weeds and crop residue loads. As a consequence, farmers used burning as a key practice of care to deal in a flexible way with an uncertain and variable farming environment, and to make crop residue retention workable in the context of their farming system. In concluding, the paper argues that the significance of flexibility in farm-level integration of CA principles requires a shift in analytical focus from adoption barriers to practices of care.

Prevalence and risk factors analysis of bovine tuberculosis in cattle raised in mixed crop-livestock farming system in Tigray region, Ethiopia.

Bovine tuberculosis (BTB) is a disease of animal and public health importance in developing countries. In rural Ethiopia, there is potential for a shift in the epidemiologic of this disease driven by transformation of dairy industry. This includes gradual change from the traditional mixed crop-livestock husbandry practice to a semi-intensification system. It is therefore, essential to document the prevalence and risk factors of BTB to continuously update the designing and implementation of control and prevention strategies. Here, we present findings of a cross-sectional study on the prevalence and associated risk factors of BTB among cattle reared under mixed crop-livestock farming system in Tigray region, Ethiopia. A multistage purposive sampling approach was used to select districts, villages, herds and individual cattle. A total of 1,357 cattle from 310 herds were examined for BTB infection using a comparative intradermal tuberculin skin test (CIDT). Questionnaires were used to gather data on herd structure and herd management practices. A multilevel logistic mixed effect model was used to determine risk factors after accounting for clustering effect at three levels (village, herd and individual animal). Overall prevalence of BTB was 4.3% (95% CI=3.4-5.6), with the highest prevalence recorded in Alamata district (5.6%) and lowest in Korem (1.6%). Multilevel logistic mixed effect model analysis identified exotic breed (OR=3, p=0.014), closed barn (OR=2.6, p=0.018), large herd size (OR=2.6, p=0.05) and purchase of cattle (OR=2.1, p=0.027) as important risk factors for BTB. Taken together, these findings suggest that the current dairy development program centred on the introduction of exotic and or crossed animals could have contributed to changing epidemiological situations of BTB in the study area.

Ricardian analysis of climate change–agriculture linkages in Pakistan

ABSTRACTClimate change has now become a universal truth. Its impact on agriculture is a growing concern in the world today. Being third most vulnerable country to climate change, agrarian economy of Pakistan seems to be at stake. The increasing threat of global warming is also on the way. To this end, a pioneering research work was conducted to trace climate change–agriculture linkages through Ricardian regression by employing gridded data sets of climatic variables. Economic valuation as articulated through spatial autoregressive specification revealed that climate change has significantly decreased Net Farm Revenues (NFRs) in irrigated and rain-fed regions. However, farmers in the irrigated region were found to be the acute sufferer of climate change which implicitly shows the imbalance in the stock of irrigation water. Estimated threshold levels for mean temperature and diurnal temperature were quantified to be 19.17°C and 13.88°C. Results indicate that on an overall basis, every increase in mean temperature significantly decreased NFRs per hectare by Rs. 8556 (US $70). But in the irrigated region, every increase in mean temperature significantly decreased NFRs per hectare by Rs 30,705 (US $256). The nonsignificant decrease in the rain-fed region could not be proved statistically. It was further estimated that increase in diurnal temperature significantly reduced NFRs by Rs. 2401 (US $20) in Pakistan, Rs. 9635 (US $80) in the irrigated region and Rs. 8834 (US $74) in the rain-fed region. The study suggested a mixed farming system as an adaptation measure in all kinds of settings while cooperative farming was identified for the rain-fed region. Similarly, updated agriculture services through various capacity building programmes particularly about climate resilient researches and rural literacy programmes may help in developing sustainable agriculture in Pakistan.

The Effect Analysis of Vegetation Diversity on Rice-Fish Mixed Farming System in Paddy Wetland

Organic farming practices including loach based ecosystem-farming have been demonstrated to be effective in conjunction with rice farming to increase yield and quality. This new form of farming combines agriculture and fishery and is quickly developing into a new industry. The current study investigated the effect of rice-fish mixed farming system on the vegetation-diversity function. Vegetation within the four study sites was surveyed and analyzed based on plant taxonomy. The vegetation survey demonstrated that 127 taxa of 38 families, 100 genera, 107 species, and 20 varieties occurred within the study sites. A total of 15 plant species taxa occurred in the rice-fish mixed paddy fields with a fish habitat and did not occur in the conventional paddy field lacking fish habitat. This difference is thought to arise from differences in moisture requirements for vegetation. Life form analysis demonstrated differences in hemicryptophytes, therophytes, and hydrophytes according to fish habitat. The naturalized plants identified were also determined to be species widely distributed throughout Korea. Frequency analysis demonstrated that the rice-fish mixed paddy fields with a fish habitat had a high ratio of both obligate and facultative wetland plants relative to the conventional paddy field. Based on the study results, it is likely that vegetation-diversity will increase with environment diversity. However, no statistical significance was observed according to paddy types. Future research should aim to identify additional environmental factors, including the existence of fish habitat, habitat area, depth of fish habitat, hydrological parameters, water quality, and paddy soil environment, to enhance vegetation-diversity and biocultural diversity. Key words : Organic Rice, freshwater

The economic potential of residue management and fertilizer use to address climate change impacts on mixed smallholder farmers in Burkina Faso

There are large yield gaps in the mixed smallholder farming systems of Africa, with limited opportunities to sustainably increase productivity and adapt to climate change. In this study, the ex-ante potential of residue retention and fertilization measures to meet this challenge is assessed using a positive mathematical programming (PMP) model. This micro-economic model captures decision making at the farm level for a sample population in Northern Burkina Faso for the 2010 to 2045 simulation period. In contrast to previous studies of mixed farms in this area, we model each individual farm in the sample population, instead of one or a small number of representative farms. We are therefore able identify groups of farms for which each measure is profitable, applied either individually or as a combined package. This approach also enables simulation of the economic impacts from indiscriminate applications of the measures or “smart” applications which are restricted to the farms that profit from the measures. Our findings are aligned with other studies showing that residue retention causes trade-offs between crop and livestock production, while fertilization can synergistically raise returns to both production activities. The annual profit losses from the “middle of the road” RCP6 trajectory of climate change assumed in this study were estimated to reach 15% by 2045. The smart package of measures increased aggregate profit the most, although not by nearly enough to claw back the losses from climate change. The fertilizer measures were the next most profitable, with indiscriminately applied residue retention being the only measure to reduce aggregate profit relative to this climate change baseline. Importantly, the measures that are the most profitable at the aggregate level are not necessarily those that would be the most widely adopted. For example, residue retention is profitable for a larger share of the sample population than fertilization. The advantage of the population scale analysis used in this study is that it prevents measures such as residue retention, which can benefit a significant share of farms, from being disregarded by practitioners because they appear to be unprofitable at the aggregate level or when viewed through the lens of an average representative farm. Finally, amidst the growing emphasis of studies on the benefits of packages compared to individual measures, the findings from this study are more equivocal about this choice, suggesting that extension programs should have the flexibility to apply measures individually or as a package.

COMPUTATIONAL MODEL TO IMPROVE DAIRY ANIMAL FEEDING UNDER MIXED FARMING SYSTEM (CROPS/LIVESTOCK) AS STUDY CASE

Computational model was designed for feeding systems of small dairy farms in Egypt under Mixed Farming System (MFS) (Crops/livestock). The present case study was selected from El-Beheira governorate, where the three common dairy animals (Local cows, Crossbred cows and buffaloes) are available. The main objectives of this study were 1- To find out the optimum combination of inputs from farm green forage and cash crops to minimize animal feeding costs. 2- Asses the possibilities of increasing the farm income by least cost rations formulation using available feed resources for dairy cattle. Technical coefficients of the models were obtained from previous studies under Egyptian condition. The model proposed three scenarios: Scenario I (S I) calculated the actual feeding situation from the case study without any changes as base run, scenario II (S II) proposed to cover animal feeding requirements of the same herd in scenario (S I) from the same available feed resources according to NRC (2001) and scenario III (S III) operating on the available feeding package quantities or reallocated farm feed resources for the same herd. The model used the common feed in summer and winter seasons (300 days) while, two months were considered as transitional period between two seasons, where irregular animal feeding regime is adopted. The results showed that area cultivated with green forages can be reduced by 17% and 25% of total planted area in SII for winter and summer, respectively, compared to base run (SI). Where as in S III, the green forage cultivated areas reduced by 30% and 25% for winter and summer, respectively in comparison with SI, feeding costs in SII were reduced by 51.11% and 38.97% in winter and summer, respectively. Using available feeding packages and reallocated farm resources in SIII reduced feeding costs by 47.78% and 27.67% for winter and summer, respectively. It can be concluded that using available feeding packages or reallocated animal feeding resources either in SII and SIII achieved a considerable reduction on animal feeding costs of small-scale mixed farms compared to base run scenario (SI).

Push-Pull Farming System Controls Fall Armyworm: Lessons from Africa

Fall armyworm (FAW) Spodoptera frugiperda invaded Africa, with the first detections being reported in Central and Western Africa in early 2016, and now affects at least 40 countries in Africa, causing up to total crop loss amounting to over $6.2 billion p.a. FAW is an invasive polyphagous pest that causes damage to economically important crops and has recently been reported in the Indian sub-continent. Effective control of FAW through use of synthetic chemical pesticides and genetically modified crops such as Bt maize faces challenges including improper use, unaffordability by smallholder farmers and development of resistance by the pest. Additionally, dispersal of FAW larvae into the lower maize plant canopy keeps them out of reach of topical insecticide applications. Integrated pest management (IPM) packages like the push-pull technology which eliminate pesticide use, and deploy natural processes are more suitable and cost-effective. Push-pull is a farming system intensification approach that involves attracting insect pests with trap plants (pull) such as Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) or Brachiaria grass, while driving them away from the main crop using a repellent intercrop (push), Desmodium spp., commonly known as desmodium, and attracting natural parasitoids and predators to the field. In the rhizosphere, chemicals secreted by desmodium roots inhibit attachment of germinated striga to maize or sorghum roots and abort germination of striga seeds which are rapidly depleted in the soil. Moreover, it improves soil fertility by fixing nitrogen, improving carbon sequestration, organic matter, moisture retention, and soil biota, and prevents further degradation of soil. The climate-adapted push-pull technology significantly reduces plant damage by FAW and is the first IPM management tool for the pest in Africa, and is well suited to agro-ecosystem intensification needs of smallholder mixed farming systems in Africa and beyond. Both the African and the Asian continents provide favourable climatic conditions for sustained reproduction of the FAW, which is expected to result in severe damage to crops; and being a new pest in both continents, it might have few natural enemies. Conventional control methods have limited effectiveness, as explained above. Therefore, an IPM approach that is compatible with mixed cropping farming systems of small and medium scale farmers is necessary. The climate adapted push-pull is the first demonstrated IPM management tool for the FAW in Africa. The technology combines this with other concomitant benefits including control of stemborers and the parasitic striga weeds, improvement of soil health through factors such as nitrogen fixation by desmodium, natural mulching, moisture retention and improvement of soil organic matter and soil biota. The combined benefits, including control of FAW, result in ecologically sustainable higher crop yields, and well suited to agro-ecosystem intensification needs of smallholder mixed farming systems in Africa and beyond.

Determinants of crop\u2013livestock diversification in the mixed farming systems: evidence from central highlands of Ethiopia

BackgroundThis paper devotes to determinants of crop–livestock diversification in the mixed farming systems in the Gudo Beret watershed, central highlands of Ethiopia. In the highland agro-ecologies, the mixed farming-dominated agriculture is persistently confronted with food insecurity, feed scarcity and land degradation. During heavy rains or drought periods, farmers become vulnerable to food and feed shortfalls. To fill such gaps, the government of Ethiopia has made efforts to enhance the productive capacity of soils and thereby increase productivity on diversified farms in different agro-systems. Anthropogenic and natural calamities adversely affect the livelihoods of smallholders in general and crop–livestock systems in particular. The aim of this study is to examine the determinants of crop–livestock diversification and evaluate the link between farm activities and household food supplies.MethodsBoth qualitative and quantitative data were collected from 211 randomly selected household-heads in Gudo Beret watershed, central highlands of Ethiopia. Descriptive statistics, inferential tests, and econometric models were employed for analysis.ResultsTobit model results revealed that livestock holding is positive and significantly influence the extent of crop–livestock diversification at 1% significant level. Extension contact and irrigated land are also positive and significantly influence the extent of diversification at 5% level, while land rent-out, improved seed and soil fertility status are negative and significantly influence the crop–livestock diversification at 1, 5, and 5% significant levels. Ordinary least square regression results show that barley, wheat- and faba bean-based farming have positive correlation and significant effects on the household food energy, while vegetables and highland fruits production have negative correlation with the household food supply and significant at 1% level.ConclusionsCrop–livestock diversification is the best potential livelihood strategy for farm households. Barley, wheat and faba bean are the most dominant crops that have immense contribution for human nutrition and crop residue mainly used to feed livestock. Therefore, crop–livestock producers, agricultural practitioners, the Ethiopian government and partner organizations need to give due attention for agricultural extension service, investment for supplementary irrigation and integrated mixed crop–livestock systems.

Sero-epidemiological study of peste des petits ruminants (PPR) in sheep and goats under different production systems in South Omo, southern Ethiopia

A cross-sectional study was conducted in three selected districts (representing pastoral/agro-pastoral and mixed farming systems) of South Omo zone of southern Ethiopia between May and October 2014, with the aim of estimating the seroprevalence of peste des petits ruminants (PPR) and identifying potential risk factors associated with the infection. A total of 894 serum samples were collected from 382 sheep and 512 goats. Sera samples were examined for presence of PPR antibodies with competitive enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (c-ELISA). The overall seroprevalence was 30.8% with 16.2% in sheep and 41.7% in goats. Goats were more likely (OR = 3.6, 95% CI: 2.5, 5.1) to be seropositive than sheep. Multivariable logistic regression analysis of exposure variables identified a significant association of PPR seroprevalence with district and sex (P <0.05). The seroprevalence was higher in Hamer (OR = 166.2, 95% CI = 22.8, 1212.5) and Bena-Tsemay (OR = 29.6, 95% CI = 4.1–215.7) than Debub Ari district and females (OR = 1.66, 95% CI: 1.04, 2.64) than their male counterparts. However, age was not associated with seropositivity (P >0.05). In conclusion, the serological study confirmed the high prevalence and endemicity of PPR in the pastoral and agro-pastoral areas of South Omo zone. The high sero-prevalence demands serious attention as the disease is known to cause considerable health and welfare problem in small ruminants and threaten livelihoods of poor herders raising them.

Soil Fertility Management by Transition Matrices and Crop Rotation: On Spatial and Dynamic Aspects in Programming of Ecosystem Services

This paper deals with crop rotation as a method to improve soil fertility and control pests from an economic point of view. It outlines a new framework for modelling of more sustainable decision-making of farmers under the auspices of ecosystem services. It is intended for practical application in extension and farmer communication to show values of rotations referring to natural capital. In the past farmers created complex rotations to benefit from ecological processes which enabled them to control natural pests (at least partly), to build soil fertility on recycling of organics (humus formation), and to promote pollination (including wild bees and other insects) and water retention (diverse water requests of different crops). Farmers which were accommodating cropping orders in small parcels of fields used long lists of crop sequences and offered mixed farming systems: this was a major feature of agriculture. Cropping orders evolved from necessity and were followed as rules. Today we are faced with large fields and monoculture, instead, and ecosystem services are diminished. Usually, attempts to recognize economic pay-offs from rotation through modelling are meagre because of complexity. We address the issue of complexity by suggesting a new flexible type of modelling crop rotations (dynamic optimization) which condenses ecological information into matrices. A newly-hosted transfer matrix shall delineate the impacts of cropping patterns in period t to fertility of land in t + 1. Categorizing different states of nature (which have to be brought in line with farmers’ knowledge of externalities), it can be implemented in models on rotation decision.

Multi-objective economic-resource-production optimization of sustainable organic mixed farming systems with nutrient recycling

Abstract This paper addresses the optimal design of mixed crop-livestock farming systems for resource efficiency, economic profitability, and environmental sustainability. The trade-offs among profit, water productivity, and organic matter accumulation are considered. We propose a novel optimization model that accounts for economics, crop cultivation, livestock production, water requirement, soil organic matter, and nitrogen cycling, among other important elements of organic farming systems. The resulting problem is a multi-objective mixed-integer nonlinear fractional programming (MINLFP) problem, which consists of fractional objective function and nonconvex nonlinear constraints. After reformulating the nonconvex constraints into convex ones, we propose a tailored global optimization algorithm to solve the resulting MINLFP problem. We further present a case study on a 100 ha organic mixed crop-livestock farm with 19 types of crops, 22 types of crop products, 3 type of livestock, and 2 types of animal products to illustrate the applicability of the proposed model and solution methods. Computational results suggest that it is more profitable to produce more high value cash crops and milk; it is more water efficient to grow cash crops than fodder; and it generates more soil organic matter accumulation by growing more crops with larger amount of root stubble and enlarging the heard size.

Transformative and systemic climate change adaptations in mixed crop-livestock farming systems

Mixed crop-livestock farming systems provide food for more than half of the world's population. These agricultural systems are predicted to be vulnerable to climate change and therefore require transformative adaptations. In collaboration with farmers in the wheatbelt of Western Australia (WA), a range of systemic and transformative adaptation options, e.g. land use change, were designed for the modelled climate change projected to occur in 2030 (0.4–1.4° increase in mean temperature). The effectiveness of the adaptation options was evaluated using coupled crop and livestock biophysical models within an economic and environmental framework at both the enterprise and farm scales. The relative changes in economic return and environmental variables in 2030 are presented in comparison with a baseline period (1970–2010). The analysis was performed on representative farm systems across a rainfall transect. Under the impact of projected climate change, the economic returns of the current farms without adaptation declined by between 2 and 47%, with a few exceptions where profit increased by up to 4%. When the adaptations were applied for 2030, profit increased at the high rainfall site in the range between 78 and 81% through a 25% increase in the size of livestock enterprise and adjustment in sowing dates, but such profit increases were associated with 6–10% increase in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. At the medium rainfall site, a 100% increase in stocking rate resulted in 5% growth in profit but with a 61–71% increase in GHG emissions and the increased likelihood of soil degradation. At the relatively low rainfall site, a 75% increase in livestock when associated with changes in crop management resulted in greater profitability and a smaller risk of soil erosion. This research identified that a shift toward a greater livestock enterprises (stocking rate and pasture area) could be a profitable and low-risk approach and may have most relevance in years with extremely low rainfall. If transformative adaptations are adopted then there will be an increased requirement for an emissions control policy due to livestock GHG emissions, while there would be also need for soil conservation strategies to be implemented during dry periods. The adoption rate analysis with producers suggests there would be a greater adoption rate for less intensified adaptations even if they are transformative. Overall the current systems would be more resilient with the adaptations, but there may be challenges in terms of environmental sustainability and in particular with soil conservation.

Proximal sensing for soil carbon accounting

Abstract. Maintaining or increasing soil organic carbon (C) is vital for securing food production and for mitigating greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, climate change, and land degradation. Some land management practices in cropping, grazing, horticultural, and mixed farming systems can be used to increase organic C in soil, but to assess their effectiveness, we need accurate and cost-efficient methods for measuring and monitoring the change. To determine the stock of organic C in soil, one requires measurements of soil organic C concentration, bulk density, and gravel content, but using conventional laboratory-based analytical methods is expensive. Our aim here is to review the current state of proximal sensing for the development of new soil C accounting methods for emissions reporting and in emissions reduction schemes. We evaluated sensing techniques in terms of their rapidity, cost, accuracy, safety, readiness, and their state of development. The most suitable method for measuring soil organic C concentrations appears to be visible–near-infrared (vis–NIR) spectroscopy and, for bulk density, active gamma-ray attenuation. Sensors for measuring gravel have not been developed, but an interim solution with rapid wet sieving and automated measurement appears useful. Field-deployable, multi-sensor systems are needed for cost-efficient soil C accounting. Proximal sensing can be used for soil organic C accounting, but the methods need to be standardized and procedural guidelines need to be developed to ensure proficient measurement and accurate reporting and verification. These are particularly important if the schemes use financial incentives for landholders to adopt management practices to sequester soil organic C. We list and discuss requirements for developing new soil C accounting methods based on proximal sensing, including requirements for recording, verification, and auditing.

Langkah Menuju Industri Peternakan Sapi Bali di Nusa Tenggara Barat (NTB) Melalui Peternakan Terpadu Tanpa Limbah: Suatu Ulasan

Three decades ago, West Nusa Tenggara or Nusa Tenggara Barat (NTB) was a resource of Bali cattle meat, to either provides national supply or export. However, since the year 2000, meat supply from NTB has been limited and there has been decreasing Bali cattle productivity. Low productivity of Bali cattle has been caused by severals factors such as: traditional way, in a small scale number cattle, in a relatively small size of land with limitation of feed availability in raising cattle. On the other hand, rice straw which potential for cattle feeding, has been burned which may induce pollution. In addition, cattle manure was also thrown to the field or to the river which may spread parasites infestation. As a consequuence, under NTB condition, Bali cattle has low productivity, with high cost of raising. Application of mixed farming may lead farm efficiency by reducing feeding cost, by using rice straws and processing manure as organic fertilizer. Mixed farming may provide solution to NTB farmers by leading zero waste and by inducing environmental friendly (&lt;em&gt;eco-farming&lt;/em&gt;). Under mixed farming system, in order to improve cattle production, appropriate technology are essential to be implemented. Hopefully, production of Bali cattle and others agricultural comodities may increase optimally. Finally, higher income can be obtained and farmers may have a better live.

Performance, Economics and Potential Impact of Perennial Rice PR23 Relative to Annual Rice Cultivars at Multiple Locations in Yunnan Province of China

Perennial grain crops hold the promise of stabilizing fragile lands, while contributing grain and grazing in mixed farming systems. Recently, perennial rice was reported to successfully survive, regrow, and yield across a diverse range of environments in Southern China and Laos, with perennial rice PR23 being identified as a prime candidate for release to farmers. This paper reports the evaluation of PR23 for release, by (1) comparing its survival, regrowth, performance, and adaptation with preferred annual rices across nine ecological regions in southern Yunnan Province of China; (2) examining the economic costs and benefits of perennial versus annual rice there; and (3) discussing the evidence for the release of PR23 as a broadly adapted and acceptable cultivar for farmers. Overall, the grain yield of PR23 was similar to those of the preferred annual rice cultivars RD23 and HXR7, but the economic analysis indicated substantial labour savings for farmers by growing the perennial instead of the annual. PR23 was comparable to the annuals in phenology, plant height, grain yield, and grain size, and was acceptable in grain and cooking quality. Farmers were keen to grow it because of reduced costs and especially savings in labour. PR23 is proposed for release to farmers because of its comparable grain yields to annual rices, its acceptable grain and milling quality, its cost and labour savings, and the likely benefits to soil stability and ecological sustainability, along with more flexible farming systems.