Military Training Areas Research Articles

Transformation of 2, 4, 6-trinitrotoluene by Stenotrophomonas strain SG1 under aerobic and anaerobic conditions

TNT, or 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene, is a common explosive that can contaminate soil and groundwater in production sites, military training areas, and disposal locations. The compound is highly toxic; therefore, there is an urgent need to rehabilitate the impacted environments. Harnessing the microbial ability to biodegrade TNT into environmentally harmless compound(s) is one approach to remediating contaminated sites. In our study, we report on the genomic and metabolic ability of Stenotrophomonas strain SG1 to degrade TNT under aerobic and anaerobic conditions. The bacterial strain SG1 was first isolated as a contaminant from a culture of Diaphorobacter sp. strain DS2 over minimal media supplemented with TNT. The draft genome assembly of strain SG1 is ∼4.7 Mb and is distributed among 358 contigs. The homology search against the custom database of enzymes responsible for TNT biodegradation revealed the presence of three N-ethylmaleimide reductases (NemA) with a defined KEGG ortholog and KEGG pathway of TNT degradation. The presence of respiratory nitrate reductases has also been mapped, which supports denitrification under anaerobic conditions. Experimentally, the TNT transformation rate accelerated when carbon sources, such as sodium acetate, sodium citrate, sodium succinate, sucrose, and glucose (final concentration of 5 mM), were added. Citrate promoted the highest growth and TNT transformation ratio (88.35%) in 120 h. With the addition of 5 mM ammonium chloride, TNT completely disappeared in the citrate and sucrose-containing treatments in 120 h. However, higher biomass was obtained in the sucrose and glucose-containing treatments in 120 h. During incubation, the formation of amino dinitrotoluene isomers, dinitrotoluene isomers, trinitrobenzene, azoxy isomers, diaryl hydroxylamines, and corresponding secondary amines was confirmed by GC/MS and UPLC/MS. 2-Amino-4-nitrotoluene, 4-amino-2-nitrotoluene, and 2-amino-6-nitrotoluene were also identified in the culture supernatant by GC/MS. Under anaerobic conditions, TNT completely disappeared in the citrate and citrate plus nitrate treatments. Since the strain shows the ability to remove TNT, this research should be useful in basic research and practical applications for removing TNT from wastewater.

Welche Nationalparke braucht Deutschland?


 
 
 National parks are the oldest and most popular category of protected areas worldwide. They focus on two main issues: firstly the protection of nature, undisturbed natural processes and the conservation of biodiversity. Due to the long history of cultural landscapes and the comparably dense population of Central Europe multifold conflicts in land use evolve. Therefore this target is difficult to achieve. Secondly nature tourism is a goal of national parks – last not least to make the idea of wilderness tangible. Being situated in structural weak regions of the rural periphery, national parks can be seen as instruments for regional development. Outdoor recreation and tourism offer this possibility, especially in sparsely settled regions with further declining population figures. Spatial planning institutions should care for this development, thus creating new regional identities in lagging areas in the long run. 20 national parks are claimed to be sufficient for Germany. They are to fill the blank gaps on a representative map of Central Europe’s biomes, including moorlands, riverine forests, beech- and mixed deciduous forests as well as marine environments. Especially large interconnected woodlands and former military training areas offer possibilities for future declarations of national parks. In order to fulfill the requirements of nature protection and visitor management national parks should cover an area of at least 10,000 ha.
 
 
 
 
 

Serological screening in wild ruminants in Germany, 2021/2022: No evidence of SARS-CoV-2, bluetongue virus or pestivirus spread but high seroprevalences against Schmallenberg virus.

Wildlife animals may be susceptible to multiple infectious agents of public health or veterinary relevance, thereby potentially forming a reservoir that bears the constant risk of re‐introduction into the human or livestock population. Here, we serologically investigated 493 wild ruminant samples collected in the 2021/2022 hunting season in Germany for the presence of antibodies against the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2) and four viruses pathogenic to domestic ruminants, namely, the orthobunyavirus Schmallenberg virus (SBV), the reovirus bluetongue virus (BTV) and ruminant pestiviruses like bovine viral diarrhoea virus or border disease virus. The animal species comprised fallow deer, red deer, roe deer, mouflon and wisent. For coronavirus serology, additional 307 fallow, roe and red deer samples collected between 2017 and 2020 at three military training areas were included. While antibodies against SBV could be detected in about 13.6% of the samples collected in 2021/2022, only one fallow deer of unknown age tested positive for anti‐BTV antibodies, and all samples reacted negative for antibodies against ruminant pestiviruses. In an ELISA based on the receptor‐binding domain (RBD) of SARS‐CoV‐2, 25 out of 493 (5.1%) samples collected in autumn and winter 2021/2022 scored positive. This sero‐reactivity could not be confirmed by the highly specific virus neutralisation test, occurred also in 2017, 2018 and 2019, that is, prior to the human SARS‐CoV‐2 pandemic, and was likewise observed against the RBD of the related SARS‐CoV‐1. Therefore, the SARS‐CoV‐2 sero‐reactivity was most likely induced by another hitherto unknown deer virus belonging to the subgenus Sarbecovirus of betacoronaviruses.

Grazing by wild red deer can mitigate nutrient enrichment in protected semi-natural open habitats

Eutrophication through atmospheric nutrient deposition is threatening the biodiversity of semi-natural habitats characterized by low nutrient availability. Accordingly, local management measures aiming at open habitat conservation need to maintain habitat-specific nutrient conditions despite atmospheric inputs. Grazing by wild herbivores, such as red deer (Cervus elaphus), has been proposed as an alternative to mechanical or livestock-based measures for preserving open habitats. The role of red deer for nutrient dynamics in protected open habitat types, however, is yet unclear. Therefore, we collected data on vegetation productivity, forage removal, quantity of red deer dung and nutrient concentrations in vegetation and dung from permanent plots in heathlands and grasslands (eight plots à 225 m2 per habitat type) on a military training area inhabited by a large population of free-ranging red deer over one year. The annual nutrient export of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) by red deer grazing was higher than the nutrient import through red deer excreta, resulting in an average net nutrient removal of 14 and 30 kg N ha−1 a−1 and 1.1 and 3.3 kg P ha−1 a−1 in heathlands and grasslands, respectively. Even when considering approximate local atmospheric deposition values, net nutrient depletion due to red deer grazing seemed very likely, notably in grasslands. Demonstrating that grazing by wild red deer can mitigate the effects of atmospheric nutrient deposition in semi-natural open habitats similarly to extensive livestock grazing, our results support the idea that red deer are suitable grazing animals for open habitat conservation.

Quantitative Environmental Assessment of Explosive Residues from the Detonation of Insensitive High Explosive Filled 155 mm Artillery Shell

AbstractInsensitive High‐Explosive (IHE) typically comprises up to five constituents including 2,4‐dinitroanisole (DNAN), 3‐nitro‐1,2,4‐triazol‐5‐one (NTO), and 1,3,5‐trinitroperhydro‐1,3,5‐triazine (RDX), which are mixed in various ratios to achieve desired performance and increase insensitivity. Insensitive munitions, which are designed to detonate on command and not accidentally, are currently in use in military operations and training areas around the world. However, there is minimal literature available on the physiochemical behavior of these materials in the environment, therefore the actual consequence of residues being deposited post‐detonation is still an unexplored area of research. Three 155 mm artillery shells filled with an IHE mixture of 53 % NTO, 32 % DNAN, and 15 % RDX were detonated in an inert sand arena to collect and quantify residues. Post detonation, approximately 0.02 % NTO, and 0.07 % DNAN were deposited in the environment which may rapidly accumulate dependent on the number of rounds fired. This is of concern due to the toxicity of DNAN and its degradation products, and the potential for increased acidity of soil and discoloration of watercourses from NTO contamination.

From military training area to National Park over 20 years: Indicators for outcome evaluation in a large-scale restoration project in alpine Norway

There is a need for large-scale demonstrations to address the challenges and possibilities for upscaling of ecosystem restoration, and for learning and sharing knowledge across professions and habitats. Large-scale and complex restoration projects need new perspectives on goal formulation, indicators for success, and evaluation to encompass both scientific approaches and the tacit knowledge held by practitioners. The objective of this paper is to use the restoration of a 165 km2 former military training area in alpine central Norway into National Park to demonstrate the challenges of upscaling and integration. Main tasks were to remove roads and technical infrastructure, prepare for natural recovery and remove undetonated ordnance. In total, 19 indicators were used to evaluate the restoration outcome, related to four overall restoration goals formulated by the Norwegian Parliament: nature protection, considerable nature benefit, safe civilian use, and restoration back to natural state. Despite an overall linear project cycle, a dynamic and adaptive process of planning, implementation and evaluation was performed at the individual site scale. A dynamic dialogue between all involved professions allowed for exchanging scientific and tacit knowledge, and continuous improvement of solutions. The study demonstrated the relevance of qualitative assessments combined with quantitative indicators – i.e., use of expert opinions and the continuous evaluation to feed back into planning and improving the implementation of restoration measures. A “Green training” procedure was developed, linking top-down formally defined settings of the project with bottom-up hand-on solutions. This procedure can be directly transferred to other large-scale mitigation and restoration projects. Demonstration sites like the one described here, are valuable to develop an expanded vision of restoration to meet the UN Sustainable Goals.

Diversity of tick species (Acari: Ixodidae) in military training areas in Southeastern Brazil.

Tick-borne pathogens belong to one of the two main groups of occupational biohazards, and occupational exposure to such agents puts soldiers at risk of zoonotic infections, such as those caused by rickettsiae. There are few studies on acarological fauna and occupational risk in military areas in Brazil. Thus, the present study aimed to analyze the diversity of ticks present in the military training areas of municipalities in the Southeast Region of Brazil. The ticks were collected from the selected areas using the dragging and flagging techniques as well as by visual detection on the operators' clothing, and environmental information was also recorded. A total of ten species were collected from the 66 surveyed areas, belonging to five genera and nine species: Amblyomma sculptum, Amblyomma dubitatum, Amblyomma brasiliense, Amblyomma longirostre, Amblyomma aureolatum, Dermacentor nitens, Rhipicephalus spp., Ixodes spp. and Haemaphysalis spp. The frequent presence of tick species in military training areas along with traces and sightings of wild animals, most commonly capybaras (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris), in most of the studied areas, indicates high levels of exposure of the military to tick vectors of spotted fever group rickettsiae and the possible occurrence of infections among the troops.

Shooting noise annoyance in communities around German military training areas

Shooting noise is characterized as impulsive, intermittent sound with high energy and low frequencies. Studies have shown that for given average sound levels shooting noise is regarded as more annoying than transportation noise, particularly road traffic noise. In comparison to transportation noise, responses to shooting noise are less frequently studied. The latest published German studies on community responses to shooting noise were conducted in the 1980ies and 1990ies. The study presented in this contribution aims to provide new data on shooting noise responses in communities around military training areas. Annoyance responses were collected using a survey with 1043 residents living around three military training sites in Germany. For the address of each resident, on the basis of shooting training in the year 2019 the average continuous sound levels and the sound exposure levels for day and night-time with the frequency weightings A, C, and Z was estimated for grid cells of 250 x 250 m. Results on the exposure-response relationship between these noise metrics and the percentage of highly annoyed persons (%HA) are presented. Among others, the results indicate, that non-acoustic factors, particularly attitudes related to the source have a strong impact on the annoyance.

Development and application of a multiple-attribute decision-analysis methodology for site selection of floating offshore wind farms on the UK Continental Shelf

This research presents the development of a methodology for determining the most suitable floating offshore wind farm locations for the northern coast of Scotland, through the application of multi-attribute decision-analysis. A large area off the northern coast of Scotland is defined and separated into coordinate grids. The environmental, logistical and facilities factors are first analysed in order to remove sites that fall within restricted areas. Following this, data is gathered for the remaining sites in terms of a set of Logistics, Facilities & Environmental, and Met-Ocean criteria. The logistical criterion consists of such factors as, depth, distance to ports and distance to substations. The Met-ocean criterion provides a data analysis of the wind, wave, tidal and current conditions of each site between 2011 and 2016, and the Facilities & Environmental criterion analyses the proximity of the sites to such criteria as Marine Protection Areas, Special Areas of Conservation, military training areas and subsea facilities. The compiled data is then applied to a Multiple Attribute Decision Analysis (MADA) algorithm which aggregates the data for each site and produces a utility ranking in order to determine the most suitable site for floating offshore wind. Validation is conducted through benchmark testing and correlation with government survey sites.

Editorial: Ecological Development and Functioning of Biological Soil Crusts After Natural and Human Disturbances

In recent years, the importance of soil health for ecosystem functions has come further into the scientific focus (Lehmann et al., 2020). Especially after severe ecosystem disturbances, soil formation has to start anew. Such disturbances, which reset ecosystem development to the starting point, can be of natural (volcanoes, mobile sand dunes, floods, glaciers) (La Farge et al., 2013; Lan et al., 2014) or human origin (post-mining landscapes, military training areas, agricultural lands) (Belnap et al., 2007; Schaaf et al., 2011). In these young ecosystems, the interactions between the initial colonizers, the inorganic matter, and the subsequent biogeochemical processes are an important prerequisite for the development of elemental fluxes, soil genesis, and thus for further ecosystem development.

Perceptions of Marginality: T he Role of Administration and Other Stakeholders in Issues of Future Development of Czech Military Training Areas

Serious problems are becoming evident after 20 years of liberalization concerning the development of Czech military training areas (MT As) and, in particular in their neighbouring zones. An important task is to devise procedures that emphasize essential conditions for the successful spatial and social integration of these marginal areas in the Czech regional system. The contemporary research presented is based on primary research of an area of special interest in the context of a situation analysis and specification of the role of local inhabitants of the military training area regarding issues of its functional use. The presented article analyzes the regional development intentions of the different hierarchical levels of board/administration (municipal, micro-regional, regional and departmental/governmental), concerning the role of an MT A in the regional system – in the case of MT A Boletice, this study’s area of interest. The qualitative research presented is based on the analysis, interpretation and evaluation of primary data, procured through structured interviews and questionnaires carried out with representatives of local administration at various hierarchical levels. The attitudes of the primary stakeholders interested in the decommitment/conversion of MT As are mainly concerned with investment benefits and project development locations rather than environmental protection legislation. <b>Percepce marginality: role veřejné správy a aktérů regionálního rozvoje v otázkách budoucího vývoje českých vojenských újezdů</b> V průběhu posledních dvou dekád liberalizace společnosti, uvolnění poměrů, se stále zřetelněji prosazují zájmy a s nimi též problémy týkající se využívání českých vojenských újezdů s předpokládanými dopady na vývoj/rozvoj sousedících správních celků. V tomto ohledu je nezbytné navrhnout postupy, které vyzdvihnou základní předpoklady úspěšné prostorové a sociální integrace zmíněných marginalizovaných oblastí Česka (vojenských újezdů) do regionálního systému. Příspěvek se zabývá rolí aktérů regionálního rozvoje a především veřejné správy v otázkách budoucího vývoje marginalizovaných území. Je zde akcentována percepce periferních území (dle konceptu jádro–periferie) s důrazem na oblasti vyčleněné z ekonomických, sociálních i politických vazeb na okolní prostředí (marginalizované zóny). Současný výzkum je založen na původním výzkumu v kontextu konstrukce situační analýzy zájmového území VÚ Boletice zahrnující analýzu role místních obyvatel vojenského újezdu v oblasti ovlivnění budoucího funkčního využití území. Dále se zde analyzují záměry a postoje rozlišných úrovní veřejné správy (úroveň obecní, mikroregionální, regionální, sektorová ministerská, zájmová a specifická) s ohledem na možnosti využití/konverze vojenských majetků. Kvalitativní povaha výzkumu je založena na analýze, interpretacích a hodnocení primárních dat poskytnutých prostřednictvím strukturovaných interview a anketního šetření. Z výsledků výzkumu jednoznačně vyplývají závěry charakterizující jednak protichůdné postoje aktérů regionálního rozvoje ve vztahu k marginalizovaným vojenským zónám ovlivněné možným investičním a ekonomickým profitem z navržených záměrů, projektů, jednak absence diskuze o koordinovaném přístupu k řešení územních problémů mezi jednotlivými úrovněmi veřejné správy (od lokální po ústřední), resorty státní správy a soukromými subjekty. Legislativa na ochranu environmentálních hodnot území (přírody a krajiny) je akcentována až v případech, kdy daný ekonomický záměr nenese přímý ekonomický zisk pro konkrétní správní území. Mj. proto se jako nezastupitelná jeví role správy zvláště chráněných území v oblasti edukace, osvěty, managementu a marketingu environmentálně vysoce cenných marginalizovaných oblastí v rámci českých vojenských újezdů.

Ecosystem restoration as a boundary object, demonstrated in a large-scale landscape restoration project in the Dovre Mountains, Norway

Coordinating and implementing ecosystem restoration projects can be challenging when the professions involved have differing perceptions of ecological restoration and implementation in practice. To overcome these barriers in complex restoration projects, we suggest analysing ecosystem restoration as a boundary object, a concept drawn from the field of science and technology studies. We use a large scale restoration project in the Dovre Mountains of Norway to demonstrate the validity of using the boundary object concept in this context. The restoration involves a former military training area where the goal of the project was to protect and restore the environment and allow for civilian use. We examine how the different professions developed sufficient mutual understanding to make the project work. In particular, we explore the extent to which the perceptions of different professions overlap, the diversity of the perceptions in the project and how this might influence the outcome of the restoration. The boundary object concept offers potential to help improve restoration quality and reduce conflicts.

Colonisation of secondary habitats in mining sites by Labidura riparia (Dermaptera: Labiduridae) from multiple natural source populations

BackgroundOpen cast lignite mines, sand pits and military training areas represent human-made, secondary habitats for specialized xerothermophilous and psammophilous species. Rare species, including the earwig Labidurariparia, are found in high population densities in such sites. However, it is unknown from which sources colonisation took place and how genetic variation compares to that of ancient populations on natural sites.MethodsUsing nine microsatellite markers, we analysed genetic variation and population structure of L. riparia in 21 populations in NE Germany both from secondary habitats such as lignite-mining sites, military training areas and a potassium mining heap, and rare primary habitats, such as coastal and inland dunes.ResultsGenetic variation was higher in populations from post-mining sites and former military training areas than in populations from coastal or inland dune sites. Overall population differentiation was substantial (FST = 0.08; FʹST = 0.253), with stronger differentiation among primary (FST = 0.196; FʹST = 0.473) than among secondary habitats (FST = 0.043; FʹST = 0.147). Differentiation followed a pattern of isolation by distance. Bayesian structure analysis revealed three gene pools representing primary habitats on a coastal dune and two different inland dunes. All populations from secondary habitats were mixtures of the two inland dune gene pools, suggesting multiple colonization of post-mining areas from different source populations and hybridisation among source populations.DiscussionPopulations of L. riparia from primary habitats deserve special conservation, because they harbour differentiated gene pools. The majority of the L. riparia populations, however, thrive in secondary habitats, highlighting their role for conservation.Implications for insect conservationA dual strategy should be followed of conserving both remaining natural habitat harbouring particular intraspecific gene pools and secondary habitat inhabited by large admixed and genetically highly variable populations.

THE ROLE OF CENTRAL AND REGIONAL GOVERNMENTS IN THE RESOLUTION OF LAND PROBLEMS OF THE INDONESIAN NAVY AS A MILITARY TRAINING AREA IN GRATI PASURUAN

ABSTRACT&#x0D; The Indonesian Navy owns land assets of State Property (BMN) in Grati, Pasuruan Regency covering an area of ​​36,763,350 m2 (3,676.34 Ha). In accordance with Government Regulation of the Republic of Indonesia Number 68 of 2014 concerning State Defense Territory Arrangement. There are 1,033 locations of Indonesian Forces lands that are included in the Territory The defense consists of the Indonesian Army as many as 583 locations, the Indonesian Navy as many as 93 locations and the Indonesian Air Force in 357 locations. The Defense Area consists of military bases or soldiers, military training areas, military installations, equipment testing areas, storage areas for other explosive and dangerous goods, areas for disposal of ammunition and other dangerous defense equipment, strategic national vital objects and air defense interests. the land of the Indonesian Navy BMN in Grati, Pasuruan Regency cannot be used optimally for the Indonesian Forces training area because many residents inhabit the Indonesian Navy land for agricultural land and housing so that the participation of the central and regional governments is needed in resolving these problems so that the Indonesian Navy can use the land as a training area in accordance with the Main Duties and Main Functions of the Indonesian Navy. And This research used descriptive qualitative methods and analysis is carried out based on the findings of the data that has been collected.&#x0D; &#x0D; Keywords: Policy evaluation, military training area, community relocation, team formation combined

On Targets

Impact range targets in military training areas can be square, triangular, rectangular, circular, and linear. Some are designed to look like other things, like airbases, villages, convoys, industrial areas, surface-to-air missile sites, and are built out of old airoplanes, trucks, tanks, cars, buses, boats, tires, mounds of earth, and empty shipping containers. Some are meant to be bombed or strafed physically, others electronically. The most focused type of target at these ranges, the classic target you might say, is circular, like a bullseye. Its simple geometric embrace of space defines a periphery, and centre. Though largely two-dimensional when seen from above, shown as a gallery they have a cosmological air, whether a planetary hard mass pulled in by gravity, or a solar gas in a sustained continuous explosion. The tension between being drawn inwards, toward the ground, and exploding outwards, is in equilibrium. Some people say that these days everything is a target. These, however, undoubtedly are, and they are out there for the world to see, through internet-based satellite imagery providers like Google Earth. Like framed photographs on the wall, they narrow our attention, and ask us to overlook everything else.

Circulation of 2 Barmah Forest Virus Lineages in Military Training Areas, Australia.

During 2017–2018, Barmah Forest virus was recovered from mosquitoes trapped in military training areas in Australia and from a soldier infected at 1 of these areas. Phylogenies of the nucleotide sequences of the envelope glycoprotein gene E2 and the 3′ untranslated region suggest that 2 lineages are circulating in eastern Australia.

Examining the impact of military training exercises on vegetation: case of the South African Army Combat Training Centre Lohatla

Training under realistic combat conditions is a prerequisite for maintaining a strong and effective defence force. For training to be effective, militaries rely on the availability and accessibility of suitable training areas to conduct training activities that ensure preparation for executing missions with maximum effectiveness and fewer casualties. Training activities that ensure combat-ready soldiers often cause vegetation degradation through vegetation cover alteration, resultant soil erosion, and increased soil compaction. Ultimately, these activities might compromise the continued availability and accessibility of realistic training conditions. Therefore, it is imperative to early detect, monitor and mitigate vegetation change in military training areas, and to secure sound environmental practices to ensure the sustainable use of training areas. Determining vegetation change by conducting fieldwork is often both time-consuming and expensive. As an expedited, inexpensive way to investigate vegetation change at the South African Army Combat Training Centre (SA Army CTC) Lohatla, the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) was used to determine changes in vegetation after military training exercises. The NDVI results indicate the impact of military exercises on vegetation and shows that exercises with a long duration can indeed lead to vegetation degradation, but short term, light exercises have limited impact on vegetation.

The Design Specificity of the Ammunition Supply and Storage Mechanism in Naval Weapon System OSU-35

The article presents the design of the ammunition supply and storage mechanism developed for the 35 mm Naval Cannon, which is an integral part of the Naval Weapon System OSU-35. The system for supplying and storing ammunition for the 35 mm KDA automatic naval cannon, was developed and manufactured in Zakłady Mechaniczne (Mechanical Plant) ‘Tarnów’ S.A. in Tarnów (Poland), as part of the project ‘35 mm Automatic Naval Cannon KDA with a Fire Control System Installed on the Ship Using the Sea Version of the ZGS-158 Integrated Tracking Head with Fire Control System’. The manufactured ammunition supply and storage mechanism used in the 35 mm Naval Cannon has been tested in the factory, military training area and verified in real conditions during research conducted at sea. The sea tests of the Naval Weapon System, installed on board of Polish anti-submarine corvette ORP Kaszub, were carried out in real conditions and included tests of shooting at surface and air targets at various parameters and distances to the target. The results of the tests carried out showed that the adopted design solutions met the assumptions that had been set and defined for the development of the 35 mm Naval Cannon, which is an integral part of the Naval Weapon System.

Biological Soil Crusts of the Great Plains: A Review

Biological soil crusts (BSCs), or biocrusts, are composed of fungi, bacteria, algae, and bryophytes (mosses, etc.) that occupy bare soil, entwining soil particles with filaments or rootlike structures and/or gluing them together with polysaccharide exudates to form a consolidated surface crust that stabilizes the soil against erosion. BSCs are common in arid and semiarid regions where vascular plant cover is naturally sparse, maximizing the exposure of surface-dwelling organisms to direct sunlight. Although less prominent and less studied there, BSC organisms are also present in more mesic areas such as the Great Plains where they can be found in shortgrass and mixed-grass prairie, in the badlands of several states, where burrowing animals have created patches of bare soil, on damaged road-cuts, strip-mines, gas and oil drill pads, military training areas, heavily grazed areas, and burn scars. Even where BSCs are not readily visible to the naked eye, many of the organisms are still present. BSC organisms are passively dispersed to the Great Plains as airborne organismal fragments, asexual diaspores, or sexual spores that accompany wind-blown dust from as far away as northern China and Mongolia. BSCs can best be studied and managed by 1) acknowledging their presence; 2) documenting their diversity, abundance, and functional roles; and 3) minimizing unnecessary disturbance, particularly when the soils are dry. This paper describes the current knowledge of Great Plains BSCs in an effort to heighten awareness of these cryptic but crucial ecosystem components and to encourage new research initiatives to better understand and manage them in this biome. Some specific actions may include refined taxonomic and ecologic studies of BSC organisms in underexplored areas, particularly those previously less or not recognized as BSC habitat, and incorporation of techniques to sample airborne organisms.

Spatiotemporal variation in disturbance impacts derived from simultaneous tracking of aircraft and shorebirds

Abstract Assessing the impacts of disturbance over large areas and long time periods is crucial for nature management, but also challenging since impacts depend on both wildlife responses to disturbance and on the spatiotemporal distribution of disturbance sources. Combined tracking of animals and disturbance sources enables quantification of wildlife responses as a function of the distance to a disturbance source. We provide a framework to derive such distance–response curves and combine those with disturbance source presence data to quantify energetic costs of disturbance at a landscape scale. We tracked 90 Eurasian Oystercatchers Haematopus ostralegus and all aircraft in a military training area in the Dutch Wadden Sea. We quantified distance–response curves estimating flight probability and additional displacement for five types of aircraft activities, by comparing bird movement prior to aircraft presence with movement during aircraft presence. We then used the distance–response curves to map mean and variation in additional daily energy expenditure due to cumulative aircraft disturbance across the landscape for a 700‐day period. Flight probability and displacement responses differed strongly among aircraft activities and decreased from transport aeroplanes, through bombing jets, helicopters, jets to small civil aeroplanes. Since the most disturbing aircraft activities were also the rarest ones, mean additional daily energy expenditure did not exceed 0.25%. However, days with substantial (&gt;1%) additional expenditure occurred between 0.1% and 3.7% of all days across high‐tide roosts in the tidal basin. Notably, expenditure particularly spiked on days with transport aeroplane activity (up to 8.5%). Synthesis and applications. We quantified cumulative energetic flight costs due to aircraft disturbance and found that these were low and unlikely to impact survival of oystercatchers in our study area. Our results provide evidence that the legal minimum flight height of 450 m for small civil aeroplanes effectively limits the disturbance of oystercatchers. Mitigation should focus on limiting the number of days when disturbance has a high impact by reducing rare but highly disturbing activities, especially transport aeroplanes. Our approach can be applied to other species and disturbance sources that are automatically tracked, for example boats and walkers, ultimately to quantify the entire anthropogenic disturbance landscape.