Mid-20th Century Research Articles

Internuncio Antonio Francesco Cirioli's correspondence with the Secretary of State on the eve of the General Sejm held in Warsaw in 1623

From the mid-16th century onwards, the Apostolic Nunciature in Poland was pro-parliamentary, anti-Turkish and counter-reformative. It should not come as a surprise that the preliminary instruction issued to nuncio Giovanni Battista Lacellotti to stay especially alert and secure the interest of the Catholic Church in Poland as well as care for Christian affairs during parliamentary sessions acquired particular significance. In early November 1622, by the appointment of cardinal Cosimo de Torres, under Gregory's XV papal brief of 3 December 1622, Antonio Francesco Cirioli became internuncio. A Bolognese by origin, Cirioli was and a Doctor of Laws and from 1621 an auditor of Cosimo de Torres's nunciature (to date completely absent from the literature of the subject). The office of the internuncio in Warsaw, to which he was appointed following his 13-month service as an auditor, was held by Cirioli for as many as twenty-three weeks, i.e. from 19 November 1622 to 29 April 1623.

Autonomy as a form of state sovereignty of the Ukrainian Cossack State (late XVII-XVIII centuries)

The study of Ukrainian statehood’s history is important for understanding the continuity of state formation in Ukraine and supporting the nation-state revival. It is crucial to examine Cossack statehood in the mid-17th century, specifically its foreign policy and international situation. The purpose of this article is to study the main directions of activity of the hetman administration of the Ukrainian Cossack state in the XVII-XVIII centuries, focusing on protecting the sovereignty of the Ukrainian government in domestic and foreign policy. The article’s methodological basis is rooted in general scientific principles and methods of cognition. These principles aim to provide an objective and comprehensive understanding of facts, events, and phenomena. The research follows the principles of historicism and objectivism, which prioritize factual material and avoid bias. General and specific historical methods of scientific research were employed in investigating the topic. These methods included: analysis and synthesis when examining sources and literature, periodization for organizing the research, problem-historical approach for presenting historical material, and comparative-historical analysis for comparing similar indicators and facts within the same historical context. Result: The elite’s perception of itself as a subject of socio-political life led to the creation of contractual orientations and the demand for mutual obligations to be recognized. This was evident in the requirements of the monarch’s oath to fulfill the contract. The Ukrainian political elite justified their intentions and actions towards protectorates based on the principle of contract, showing their willingness to fulfill contractual obligations on an equal footing. Conclusions: The legal subjectivity of the Ukrainian political elite has been reduced to post-sovereign autonomism due to increasing foreign policy imperial pressure. The typological characteristics of this are the following: 1) recognition of the supreme power of the protector-monarch; 2) refusal to regulate social relations by the laws of the protector’s country; 3) categorical denial of the right of the political elite of the monarch-protector’s country to perform any managerial functions within the political system of the Hetmanship.

List of wounded soldiers of Abraham Leslie's Regiment as a source for the history of military affairs and medicine mid-17th century

List of wounded soldiers of Abraham Leslie's Regiment as a source for the history of military affairs and medicine mid-17th century

Climate change shocks and crop production: The foodgrain bowl of India as an example

Global warming is causing climate change (CC) characterized by increased frequency of heatwaves, droughts, erratic rains, hailstorms, cloudbursts, floods, landslides etc. The CC has already adversely affected ecosystems. In spite of efforts to mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, which lead to warming, the global temperature during 2011–20 was 1.1°C above that during pre-industrial era. The projections are that warming will continue to increase and adverse effects will intensify particularly in developing countries like India. In India a number of studies have recorded wide spatial variability in rainfall, though, many reported a general overall negative trend since mid-20th century. Further, varying pattern of rainfall has been recorded in three agroclimatic regions of Punjab state, the granary of India. Unseasonal rains followed by spiked temperature during winter (rabi) season of 2021–22 reduced wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) yield in Punjab by 651 kg/ha and by 301 kg/ha in Haryana compared to 2020–21. Further, the grain was of lower quality. During rainy (kharif) season of 2022, Southern Rice Black-streaked Dwarf Virus (SRBSDV), appeared for the first time in Punjab and Haryana. Some farmers ploughed the affected fields. Adverse weather during rabi 2022–23 also, reduced the wheat yield (143–150 kg/ha) in these states. At the national level, erratic weather during rabi 2021–22 and kharif 2022 caused losses of about 3 mt of grain of each of wheat and rice (Oryza sativa L.). The projected increased adverse effects due to intensified CC include food insecurity. Thus, there is an emergent need to accelerate implementation of adaptation and mitigation strategies in agriculture. The adaptation options include cultivar improvement, conservation agriculture altering growing seasons, crop diversification and sustainable soil, and water resource management. In the process of adaptive management of crop production, adjusting sowing dates and breeding cultivars having varying duration in consonance with CC has been one of the central aspects. Shifting sowing dates to find appropriate crop cultivation season is a low-cost measure. However, cultivar development is time and resource consuming. Novel biotechnological tools enable fast cultivar development with precision, and facilitate mobilization of genes from wild-weedy relatives, which are rich in genes conferring resistance/tolerance to biotic and biotic stresses, required to combat CC challenge. In view of CC stress on water resources, improving water-use efficiency (WUE) has gained importance. Sensor-based micro-irrigation/fertigation has great potential to enhance water and fertilizer-use efficiency. Similarly, the application of other smart technologies like nanotechnology, sensor-based pesticide application, bio-fertilizers and bio-pesticides, need to be mobilised. In view of agro-ecological diversity in India, right-sized regionspecific technology packages have to be developed implying that crop research will expand exponentially. This needs strengthening of human resources and institutional infrastructure, expanding and linking basic and applied researches, and fortifying inter-disciplinary/inter-institutional collaborations to develop and diffuse technology innovations. Enabling factors include enhanced funding and international cooperation. All-out efforts are needed to have more climate-resilient agriculture.

“Ourselves Writ savage”: Disease, Desire, and Colonialism in Kuru Country

This essay interrogates the intersections of colonialism, western science, and desire through an analysis of the outbreak of kuru in Papua New Guinea in the mid-20th century. I argue that cannibalism drew eyes to the eastern highlands, and the discovery of kuru kept the colonial gaze fixed firmly on the region. Finally, I explore how the appetites of D. Carleton Gajdusek, both medical and sexual, further entrenched western power.

On the trail of banal racism: a Gypsophile genealogy of Romaphobia

ABSTRACT Based on a concern to study historical forms of racism that usually fall under the radar of histories of racism that focus on the peak moments of regimes such as Jim Crow laws in the United States, Nazi racial politics and the apartheid system in South Africa, this article proposes a definition of the concept of banal racism to be applied in situations where the explanation of racism involves long-standing cultural phenomena and social practices rather than legal norms and official policies. A dialogue is established with concepts borrowed from the social sciences, such as “cordial racism,” “prosaic racism” and “benevolent racism,” to underline the banality (in Arendt’s sense) of these forms of discrimination and social hierarchisation, which can entail a high degree of violence compatible with their declared innocence. Together with the conceptual proposal, a case study is presented as an example, in which the racist undercurrent underlying the Gypsyophile discourse of three Anglo-Saxon travellers who visited Spain between the mid-19th and mid-20th centuries is analysed.

Model city failure: New Haven and limits to the entrepreneurial state

ABSTRACT This paper critically examines the concept of the entrepreneurial state by focusing on the case study of New Haven, Connecticut, during the mid-20th century. We delve into the ambitious urban development efforts spearheaded by Mayor Richard Lee and his administration. In particular, we examine the construction of the Chapel Square Mall as a response to urban decline with the hope it would stimulate economic growth. Through a comprehensive analysis of historical records, political dynamics, and the socioeconomic context of New Haven, we highlight the inherent challenges and limitations faced by local governments in acting as entrepreneurs. Our findings reveal that despite the strategic intentions to revitalize the city and foster an entrepreneurial ecosystem, the project ultimately resulted in substantial financial losses, displacement of communities, and failed urban planning ambitions. This case study underscores the complexities of state entrepreneurship at the local level, where political motives, limited information, and the pursuit of voter support can diverge significantly from entrepreneurial objectives, leading to outcomes that are detrimental to both the city’s economic health and its residents. By comparing New Haven’s experience with broader critiques of the entrepreneurial state, this paper contributes to a nuanced understanding of the potential and pitfalls of government-led economic development initiatives.

Medical Education in Bangladesh and the United States: A Comparative Overview

This manuscript presents an overview of Bangladesh medical education system with a brief comparison to the United States. Despite differences in origins and structures, both share similarities and differences in their medical curricula and examination-driven approaches. The paper employs a non-systematic comparative review methodology, gathering information from diverse sources including government websites, educational institutions, and published articles. Medical education in Bangladesh traces its roots back to the mid-20th century, initially influenced by British educational practices. The country now boasts 76 medical colleges—23 public and 53 private—admitting approximately 7,156 students annually for the MBBS degree. The admission process is competitive, with strict eligibility criteria including completion of prerequisite courses and a minimum grade-point average. The five-year MBBS program followed by a one-year clinical internship is a standard pathway in Bangladeshi medical education, with further specialization achieved through fellowship training. In terms of structure, curriculum, and training programs, the Bangladesh medical education system aligns with a lecture-based, examination-focused approach. However, research initiatives are limited due to resource constraints, impacting the quality and quantity of publications. Financially, both public and private medical institutions in Bangladesh charge similar tuition fees ranging from $33,000 to $48,000 USD for the entire MBBS degree, with limited scholarship opportunities. Upon graduation, physicians often opt for private practice, contributing to concerns about retaining qualified medical professionals within the country, particularly in rural areas. Comparatively, the United States has a longstanding history of medical education dating back over two centuries. The American system, encompassing diverse nomenclature for medical schools and varying degrees, presents differences in the application process, structure, and postgraduate training compared to Bangladesh. This comprehensive review highlights the distinctions and commonalities between the medical education systems of the United States and Bangladesh, serving as a resource for prospective students, current practitioners, and residency program directors.

Digitization of Astronomical Photographic Plates of China and Astrometric Measurement of Single-exposure Plates

From the mid-19th century to the end of the 20th century, photographic plates served as the primary detectors for astronomical observations. Astronomical photographic observations in China began in 1901, and over a century, a total of approximately 30,000 astronomical photographic plates were captured. These historical plates play an irreplaceable role in conducting long-term, time-domain astronomical research. To preserve and explore these valuable original astronomical observational data, Shanghai Astronomical Observatory has organized the transportation of plates, taken during nighttime observations from various stations across the country, to the Sheshan Plate Archive for centralized preservation. For the first time, plate information statistics were calculated. On this basis, the plates were cleaned and digitally scanned, and finally digitized images were acquired for 29,314 plates. In this study, using Gaia DR2 as the reference star catalog, astrometric processing was carried out successfully on 15,696 single-exposure plates, including object extraction, stellar identification, and plate model computation. As a result, for long focal length telescopes, such as the 40 cm double-tube refractor telescope, the 1.56 m reflector telescope at Shanghai Astronomical Observatory, and the 1m reflecting telescope at Yunnan Astronomical Observatory, the astrometric accuracy obtained for their plates is approximately 0.″1–0.″3. The distribution of astrometric accuracy for medium and short focal length telescopes ranges from 0.″3 to 1.″0. The relevant data of this batch of plates, including digitized images and a stellar catalog of the plates, are archived and released by the National Astronomical Data Center. Users can access and download plate data based on keywords such as station, telescope, observation year, and observed celestial coordinates.

Education and home training in an aristocratic family in the mid-19th century: a case study of count S. D. Sheremetev

Education and home training in an aristocratic family in the mid-19th century: a case study of count S. D. Sheremetev

조선시대 궁궐 별원(別苑) 함춘원(含春苑)의 성립과 전개

The outer royal palace during the Joseon Dynasty was a royal garden outside the palace, which is defined as one that which controlled entry and view of the people outside given the walls built to surround the hills adjacent to the palace walls. The outer royal garden system began with a wall outside of Changgyeonggung Palace, which was called “Hamchunwon (含春苑)” during the reign of King Seongjong, and around the same time, it was estimated that another was installed and named “Sangrinwon (上林苑)” outside of the palace walls to the east of Changdeokgung Palace. During the time of Gwanghaegun (光海君), when Gyeongdeokgung Palace was built, a new outer royal garden called “Hamchunwon” was formed on the hill outside of Gaeyangmun Gate (開陽門), which was classically modeled after the previously executed outer royal garden system. Since the outer royal garden was of a topography which directly affected the feng shui related aspects of the palace, it was especially managed as a prohibited area. After the outer royal garden was built, the vacant land within the wall took on the role of a production area, and a forest made of shade and fruit trees, etc., was created to provide timber and fruits for the royal families. Hamchunwon accounts for the vast majority of the names of the outer royal gardens emerging across historical documents, while other names emerged including Sangrimwon, “Seowon (西苑)”, and “Bangrimwon (芳林院)”. Among which, Hamchunwon was used as a name of each individual outer royal garden, yet since the mid-18th century, it has been used as a universal name for the outer royal garden of the entire capital city.

에도시대 두창의 예방과 치료: 인두법의 수용을 중심으로

This paper explores the introduction of smallpox variolation (人痘法) as a means of addressing the smallpox epidemic during the Edo period in Japan. It also investigates the impact of smallpox variolation on Japanese society during the late Edo period. I begin by outlining the history of smallpox epidemics in Japan. Subsequently, I document the process of introducing and developing smallpox variolation, which was considered a valuable preventive measure against smallpox during that period. While smallpox variolation was introduced in the mid-18th century, it took about half a century for the practice to be effectively implemented. Several physicians attempted variolation during this period, but Ogata Shunsaku (緖方春朔) was renowned as the first to succeed on a large scale, particularly with children. He authored works such as “Shutohissunben (種痘必順辨)” to advocate for the effectiveness of variolation. Additionally, rather than simply adopting the Chinese method of variolation, he developed his own method that took into consideration Japan's unique climate and environment, hoping to enhance the efficacy of variolation. During that time, the prevailing response to the smallpox epidemic focused on diagnosis and treatment using medicine rather than variolation. While Ogata Shunsaku actively practiced variolation, the shogunate established an institution within the medical department tasked with the prevention and treatment of smallpox. This institution propagated the Ikeda-ryu (池田流) method, which specialized in diagnosing and treating smallpox. Despite disparities in approaches, competition between smallpox prevention and treatment catalyzed the accumulation of relevant medical knowledge and experience in Japan during the early 19th century. Initially, variolation was introduced from China; however, over time, researchers experimented with it in various ways, integrating knowledge from Rangaku (蘭學) and cowpox inoculation (牛痘法). Responding to academic and technical developments, Ranpoi (蘭方醫) made diverse attempts at variolation that served as precursors to the eventual adoption of cowpox inoculation. Examining the process of variolation’s introduction and implementation elucidates the characteristics of early 19th-century Japanese medicine that transcended disciplinary boundaries.

Scope and caveats: Artificial intelligence in gastroenterology

The use of Artificial intelligence (AI) has evolved from its mid-20th century origins to playing a pivotal tool in modern medicine. It leverages digital data and computational hardware for diverse applications, including diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment responses in gastrointestinal and hepatic conditions. AI has had an impact in diagnostic techniques, particularly endoscopy, ultrasound, and histopathology. AI encompasses machine learning, natural language processing, and robotics, with machine learning being central. This involves sophisticated algorithms capable of managing complex datasets, far surpassing traditional statistical methods. These algorithms, both supervised and unsupervised, are integral for interpreting large datasets. In liver diseases, AI's non-invasive diagnostic applications, particularly in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, and its role in characterizing hepatic lesions is promising. AI aids in distinguishing between normal and cirrhotic livers and improves the accuracy of lesion characterization and prognostication of hepatocellular carcinoma. AI enhances lesion identification during endoscopy, showing potential in the diagnosis and management of early-stage esophageal carcinoma. In peptic ulcer disease, AI technologies influence patient management strategies. AI is useful in colonoscopy, particularly in detecting smaller colonic polyps. However, its applicability in non-academic settings requires further validation. Addressing these issues is vital for harnessing the potential of AI. In conclusion, while AI offers transformative possibilities in gastroenterology, careful integration and balancing of technical possibilities with ethical and practical application, is essential for optimal use.

Resilience of Terraced Landscapes to Human and Natural Impacts: A GIS-Based Reconstruction of Land Use Evolution in a Mediterranean Mountain Valley

Terraced historical landscapes have multiple functions in mountain land, limiting erosion, enabling agricultural production and constituting cultural heritage. Currently, they are largely abandoned in Mediterranean regions and facing the ongoing impacts of climate change. Our aim is to reconstruct the evolution of land use on the terraces in order to test the hypothesis of the resilience of these landscapes and their age in recent history (17th–21st century). To achieve this, we used various current and archive spatial datasets and GIS knowledge to detect and map terraces and the changes in land use. We tested this hypothesis in a territory impacted by a recent extreme event, facing the challenge of its reconstruction. Our main outcome showed that the optimal use of the terraces corresponded to the demographic optimum of the mid-19th century, and they were gradually abandoned after the Second World War, with significant differences between Mediterranean and mountain lands. Despite this evolution, the terraces persisted and withstood an extreme event, validating our resilience hypothesis and opening avenues for the revitalization of this territory based on this heritage. These findings are drawing perspectives for the future of terraced landscapes in Mediterranean mountains in the context of climate change.

Eloquent Blood: A Historical Microsociology of Blushing

Microsociology has been criticised for universalising ‘the’ interaction order as it occurs among the North American middle classes. A way of addressing this issue lies in historicising interaction: showing how each component of the interaction order has been historically moulded. The present article illustrates this argument with the case of blushing, from the late 18th century through to the early 21st century, in the USA, Australia and France. The examination of newspaper articles, novels, publications in medicine, psychology and criminology, and other sources, makes it possible to retrace the shifting meanings and practices of blushing over time. Several processes have been identified, such as the racialisation of blushing at the end of the 18th century, its progressive masculinisation and medicalisation from the mid-19th to the mid-20th century and later its psychologisation and re-figuration in digital technologies. The conclusion calls for a historical sociology of the interaction order, or historical microsociology.

A Study Seeking Historical Evidence for Bases of Classified Balance Sheets

This paper explores the historical evolution of balance sheet layout and the reasons behind the positioning of assets on the left or right side. It delves into two main questions: why the discrepancy in asset placement on balance sheets across countries, and why the shift from right to left in the UK during the 19th century. Using historical evidence spanning from the 15th century to the mid-20th century, the study investigates the development and changes in listing assets, liabilities, and stockholders' equity. It aims to uncover the factors influencing the classification and presentation of items on balance sheets, driven by the needs of information users over time. By examining secondary sources in English literature, the paper provides insights into the evolution of balance sheet layouts globally. Researchers may find this exploration of historical balance sheet variations intriguing, shedding light on how layout decisions have been shaped by user needs and expectations.

Commemorating Jubilee of Jan Hus in Russian Empire: Preconditions, History, Cultural Context.

The brief report on the activities of the St. Petersburg Slavic Charitable Committee for the year 1869 includes a record that society members discussed the celebration of the 500th anniversary of Jan Hus and established a prize for an essay on the Czech religious figure. The inclusion of Hus in the list of “jubilarians” worthy of honor not only highlights the significance of this religious thinker for the Slavic world but also touches upon certain political aspects of Russian history. The article analyzes the reasons for the Russian public's attention to Hus’s persona, provides a characterization of the views of Russian intellectuals at the time of the contest announcement regarding the legacy of the Czech religious figure, and presents reflections on how the proposal to support Jan Hus’s 500th jubilee aligns with the tradition of honoring cultural figures in the Russian Empire by the mid-19th century. The material draws from both published documents and sources not yet introduced into scholarly circulation. The motives behind honoring Jan Hus's legacy are seen in the acknowledgment by the chairman of the St. Petersburg branch of the committee, Gilferding, of the Orthodox foundations of the Czech reformer’s teachings, deeming it possible to use Hus celebrations as a lever of influence on Czech society and advance the idea of political and religious unity among all Slavic branches in Orthodox faith.

Morisot and Cassatt the Exploration of Female Identity in the 19th Century

This paper explores the limitations of church and social influence on women in Europe prior to the 19th century. The author argues that the decline of the domestic economy in the mid-18th century made domestic work more associated with women, leaving most women unable to pursue elite professions such as music, dance, and art. During this period, influenced by the patriarchal social concept, most women did not have the opportunity to pursue these industries, but spent a lot of time and energy in the family, becoming slaves to the family and children. However, the birth of Impressionism reduced the constraints and restrictions of the academic art style and promoted the rise of female artists in the 19th century. This paper will compare the themes, perspectives and self-cognition of the two artists, Berrit Morisot and Mary Cassatt, to show that under the influence of Enlightenment thought, the two artists integrated female identity and family into their painting career, but expressed their different identities.

Misapplied management makes matters worse: Spatially explicit control leverages biotic interactions to slow invasion.

A wide range of approaches has been used to manage the spread of invasive species, yet invaders continue to be a challenge to control. In some cases, management actions have no effect or may even inadvertently benefit the targeted invader. Here, we use the mid-20th century management of the Red Imported Fire Ant, Solenopsis invicta, in the US as a motivating case study to explore the conditions under which such wasted management effort may occur. Introduced in approximately 1940, the fire ant spread widely through the southeast USand became a problematic pest. Historically, fire ants were managed with broad-spectrum pesticides; unfortunately, these efforts were largely unsuccessful. One hypothesis suggests that, by also killing native ants, mass pesticide application reduced competitive burdens thereby enabling fire ants to invade more quickly than they would in the absence of management. We use a mechanistic competition model to demonstrate the landscape-level effects of such management. We explicitly model the extent and location of pesticide applications, showing that the same pesticide application can have a positive, neutral, or negative effect on the progress of an invasion, depending on where it is applied on the landscape with respect to the invasion front. When designing management, the target species is often considered alone; however, this work suggests that leveraging existing biotic interactions, specifically competition with native species, can increase the efficacy of management. Our model not only highlights the potential unintended consequences of ignoring biotic interactions, but also provides a framework for developing spatially explicit management strategies that take advantage of these biotic interactions to work smarter, not harder.

Twentieth-Century Chamber Music: From Total Control to Indeterminism

The article examines the changes occuring in chamber-instrumental music during the 20th century. The process of origination and further strengthening of the tendency of the composer to delegate decisions to the performer, which significantly changes the creative process and the final piece of music, has been outlined. This indicates elements of performativity, such as aleatorics, associated with unpredictability, and improvisation in the performance process. As part of the study of the mentioned topic, the evolution from atonality and dodecaphony to integral serialism and, as a reaction to total determinism, the emergence of aleatorics, which marked a significant renewal in compositional techniques and performance practices as a reaction to changes in sociocultural processes, were followed. Analyzing the works of composers John Cage, Pierre Boulez, and Karlheinz Stockhausen, as well as the their Ukrainian peers, the paper attempts to find the interrelations between the mentioned processes and the philosophical and aesthetic concepts of the mid-20th century. Thus, a change in the communicative mechanisms of interaction between the composer, the performer, and the listener with the redistribution of functions in the process of forming the final piece of music was presented.