Message Conditions Research Articles

The effect of affective versus cognitive persuasive messages on African American women’s attitudes toward condom use

Objective Health decision making models propose that affective associations at both the implicit and explicit level and cognitive beliefs influence health behaviours. The current studies investigated whether affective or cognitive persuasive messages would lead to more positive implicit and explicit condom use attitudes and higher intentions among African American college women. Design Participants (Study 1 N = 109; Study 2 N = 112) explicit attitudes were assess prior to watching a short video that contained either affective (e.g., safe sex is pleasurable) or cognitive messages (e.g., latex condoms are effective in preventing HIV) in favour of condom use. Main Outcome Measures Following the video, participants completed the Affect Misattribution Procedure (AMP), a measure of implicit attitudes, explicit measures of condom use attitudes that assessed attitudes at the overall and component level, intentions to use condoms, and interest in receiving free sample of condoms. Results Participants in the affective message condition reported more positive condom use attitudes on both the implicit and explicit measure, higher intentions to use condoms, and more interest in receiving free condoms than those in the cognitive message condition. Conclusion These results suggest that affective messages may be more effective in changing condom use attitudes, which can be used in interventions to promote protective condom use behaviours.

Text message safety behavior reduction for social anxiety: A randomized controlled trial.

Cognitive models of social anxiety disorder propose that maladaptive safety behaviors (SBs; i.e., behaviors intended to avoid, prevent, or manage threat) play an important maintaining role in the disorder. Though targeting these behaviors for elimination is one component of contemporary cognitive-behavioral therapies for social anxiety, it has rarely been examined as a specific treatment strategy, and, to our knowledge, it has not yet been examined in isolation as an intervention for social anxiety. The current study evaluated an SB reduction intervention for social anxiety that consisted of brief text message reminders. Individuals with elevated social anxiety (N = 94) were recruited from across the United States and randomized to receive one of two 1-month text message interventions consisting of 16 text message reminders to avoid SBs or focus on the present. Symptoms were assessed at pre- and posttreatment, as well as at 1-month follow-up. Both treatments were associated with substantial symptom reduction. Compared to the present-focused text message condition, SB elimination led to lower SB frequency at posttreatment (sr² = .044, p = .048) and lower social anxiety at follow-up (sr² = .096, p = .005). These preliminary findings provide novel evidence for the importance of SBs in social anxiety and suggest text message SB reduction may be an effective, highly accessible intervention for individuals with social anxiety. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Preventing college student nonmedical prescription stimulant use: Development of vested interest theory-based persuasive messages

Vested interest theory (VIT) predicts that perceived importance and hedonic relevance of an expected behavioral outcome affects attitude-behavior consistency. Applied to college students’ nonmedical use of prescription stimulants (NUPS), the theory posits that persuasive information that weakens vested perceptions regarding assumed advantages of stimulant misuse will reduce usage intentions. The current study developed and experimentally assessed persuasive messages that targeted perceptions of vested interest (VI), and examined if message effectiveness varied as a function of users’ risk status. Appeals that focused on the physical harms of misuse served as the comparison condition. College student participants (N = 282) were randomly assigned to one of four message conditions. To examine group differences, data were analyzed in a 2 (VIT-based message: yes, no) × 2 (Physical harms emphasized: yes, no) × 3 (User status: resolute, vulnerable, user) between-subjects factorial design. Analyses showed that messages focused on lowering VI by convincing students that NUPS did not enhance cognitive functioning of non-ADD/ADHD students reduced perceived vested interest (p < .001) and attitude favoribility p = .005. In vulnerable nonusers, these messages also decreased NUPS intentions p = .006. The effect of exposure to the physical harm communication was not significant. Findings support the potential of VIT-guided messages in NUPS prevention, and the lack of effect of messages focused on physical consequences of misuse.

Beneficial Influence of Mindfulness Training Promoted by Text Messages on Self-Reported Aerobic Physical Activity in Older Adults: A Randomized Controlled Study.

Inactivity is known to have harmful effects on the physical and mental health of older adults. This study used a randomized, parallel trial design to evaluate whether daily text prompts to practice mindfulness would have a positive impact on the time that adults aged 50 years or older spend in aerobic physical activity. The participants were recruited from a certified fitness center and divided into mindfulness and control groups. For 4 weeks, they were exposed to the experimental conditions, with or without the morning text message. In the morning message condition, the mindfulness groups received a text message with the instruction to practice audio-guided mindfulness for 10min, and the control group received a placebo message. The participants practicing mindfulness reported significantly more weekly minutes of aerobic physical activity and higher intrinsic motivation than the control participants. Mindfulness training was effective at increasing aerobic physical activity duration and might complement physical activity programs.

Gender differences in the effectiveness of public education messages aimed at smartphone use among young drivers

Objective: The main aim of this survey study was to evaluate the relative persuasiveness of three newly developed and piloted public education messages aimed at monitoring/reading social interactive technology on a smartphone among young male and female drivers. In accordance with the Step Approach to Message Design and Testing, the messages were evaluated on a number of outcome measures and also explored the influence of self-reported involvement in the target behavior.Methods: Participants (N = 152; 105 F) were aged 17 to 25 years (Mage = 20.14 years, SD = 2.35) and were randomly allocated to either an intervention (one of the three messages) or control (no message) condition. The messages in the intervention group were assessed on acceptance (i.e., behavioral intention and message effectiveness), rejection, and the third person effect (TPE) differential score (i.e., the message is perceived to be more effective for others than for themselves).Results: Hierarchical regression analyses found that, compared to males, females reported: a) lower intention to monitor/read social interactive technology on a smartphone while driving, b) lower rejection; and, c) lower TPE likelihood, irrespective of message.Conclusions: These findings suggest that young male drivers and young female drivers require different message content to be effective and support the importance of including multiple outcome measures to explain the messages’ persuasive effects.

Not All Promotion Is Good Promotion: The Pitfalls of Overexaggerated Claims and Controlling Language in Exercise Messaging.

Across 2 studies, the authors explored reactance effects to overexaggerated claims and controlling language in exercise messaging. In Study 1, participants received either a message exaggerating the benefits of an upcoming exercise session or no message. They subsequently undertook a mundane exercise session led by an instructor, which was either need supportive or "realistically controlling." Relative to no-message participants, those who had read the message reported less positive evaluations of the session. These results were observed despite participants in the message condition holding more positive presession expectations, and the effect was apparent even for those who received need-supportive instruction. In Study 2, participants read an advertisement that was written in either autonomy-supportive language or controlling language. Despite reporting comparable expectations, participants who received a controlling-language message reported significantly greater anger and freedom threat-factors commonly linked to contrast effects. These studies highlight the operation of message-driven contrast effects in exercise.

Scared Yet Compassionate? Exploring the Order Effects of Threat Versus Suffering Messages on Attitude Toward Scary Victims

The order in which individuals receive information about wildlife may influence their attitude toward wildlife differently. We explored order effects of a threat message that induced more fear versus a suffering message that elicited more compassion on attitude toward wildlife. Specifically, we focused on bats, a risk-laden species also suffering massive mortalities due to a disease affecting bat populations across the United States. We randomly assigned 1,506 U.S. adults to one of eight message conditions as part of a 2 (message order: suffering → threat vs. threat → suffering) × 2 (suffering messages) × 2 (threat messages) between-subjects factorial design or a control (no message) condition. We found a significant two-way interaction between message order and biospheric values on attitude toward bats. For people with high biospheric values, reading a suffering message first led to a more positive attitude than reading a threat message first, whereas reading a threat message first led to a more positive attitude than reading a suffering message first for people with low biospheric values. Compassion but not fear mediated these effects. Theoretical and practical implications are provided.

The Influence of Health Messages in Nudging Consumption of Whole Grain Pasta.

Health messages may be an important predictor in the selection of healthier food choices among young adults. The primary objective of our study is to test the impact of labeling whole grain pasta with a health message descriptor displayed at the point-of-purchase (POP) on consumer choice in a campus dining setting. The study was conducted in a large US college dining venue during lunch service; data were collected during a nine-week period, for a total of 18 days of observation. Each day, an information treatment (i.e., no-message condition; vitamin message; fiber message) was alternated assigned to whole grain penne. Over the study period, the selection of four pasta options (white penne, whole grain penne, spinach fettuccine, and tortellini) were recorded and compiled for analysis. Logistic regression and pairwise comparison analyses were performed to estimate the impact of health messages on diners’ decisions to choose whole grain penne among the four pasta types. Our results indicate that only the message about vitamin benefits had a significant effect on this choice, with a 7.4% higher probability of selecting this pasta than the no-message condition and 6.0% higher than the fiber message condition. These findings suggest that psychological health claims (e.g., reduction of fatigue) of whole grains seem more attractive than physiological health claims (e.g., maintaining a healthy weight) for university students. In line with the 2015–2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans, our results suggest that small changes made at the POP have the potential to contribute to significant improvements in diet (e.g., achieving recommended levels of dietary fiber). These findings have important implications for food service practitioners in delivering information with the greatest impact on healthy food choices.

Effects of public versus media responsibility messages on stigmatization of people with schizophrenia in an American adult sample.

People with mental illness suffer from the consequences of stigma. Interventions to reduce stigma should focus on alternative approaches that target false beliefs toward mental disorders. The effectiveness of two messages to reduce stigma toward schizophrenia was tested: a traditional public responsibility message that attributes stigma to public misunderstandings, and an alternative media responsibility message that attributes stigma to bias in media representations. An experiment with Americans (N = 448) randomly assigned to a public responsibility message, a media responsibility message, or a control condition. Participants in the two message conditions completed measures of guilt and reactance toward the media. Perceptions of personal responsibility and dangerousness, and social rejection intentions were assessed for all participants. Both messages lowered perceptions of dangerousness and social rejection intentions, relative to control. The media responsibility generated more reactance toward the media than the public responsibility approach, but not more guilt. Reactance did not mediate message effects. Perceptions of personal responsibility were reduced after exposure to the public responsibility message, but only for participants with no prior contact with mental illness. Both approaches reduced perceptions of dangerousness and social rejection intentions. Stigma reduction campaigns might segment the audience based on prior contact.

Students Can Exhibit Discretionary Responding to Texts Social Media Messages During Class: Fact or Fiction?

Terms such as ‘compulsion’ and ‘addiction’ are often used when describing young adults’ response behaviors regarding texts and messages. Purpose of the Research: The present study documents response patterns for texts and messages in a higher education classroom context. Both the number of texts and messages responded to and the time taken between receipt and response were examined. These measures, as well as perceptions about multitasking and learning, were examined with respect to performance for lecture content. Students were assigned to either a texting or social media message condition. Within each of these conditions, students were either instructed to respond to texts/messages immediately or at their own discretion. Principal Results: Consistent with characterizations of habits/compulsions, the majority of participants in all conditions responded to most of the individual texts/messages. In no condition did all participants respond to all of the texts/messages. Students in the discretionary texting condition took longer to reply to texts/messages than those in the immediate social media condition for the vast majority of texts/messages received. Higher performance scores were found for test items not associated with the arrival of texts/messages. Students acknowledged some potential for multitasking to impact learning, however, these perceptions were not related to the volume or timing of text/message responses. Major Conclusions: This study identifies that students responding to texts/messages in the educational context is more complex than a simple habitual behaviour and that the pervasiveness may make the behavior a challenge even in live lecture contexts.

How to reduce red and processed meat consumption by daily text messages targeting environment or health benefits

The current study tested the impact of different messaging interventions on changing attitude and behaviour in relation to Red and Processed Meat Consumption (RPMC). The study compared the effectiveness of receiving fourteen daily messages on the health, environment, or health + environment benefits of reduced RPMC, against a no message control condition. All three intervention conditions also received daily reminders of the goal regarding RPMC and were asked to record RPMC using a food diary. Participants in the control condition were only asked to use a food diary to record daily food intake. Behaviour and attitude in relation to RPMC of all participants were assessed at Time 1 (pre-message), Time 2 (immediately post-message, two weeks later) and Time 3 (one month later again). Participants were Italian undergraduates (at Time 1 N = 322) randomly allocated to one of the four conditions. Only those completing all measures at all time points were retained for analysis (N = 241). Results showed that health message condition and environment message condition, but not health + environment messages condition, were effective in increasing a positive attitude towards reduced RPMC compared to the control condition. Attitude mediated the effects of health condition and environmental condition on the reduction of behaviour. The effects of health and environment messages on attitude and behaviour persisted for one month after the end of the intervention. Implications for devising effective messaging intervention to change RPMC are discussed.

A Process Analysis of Message Style and Persuasion: The Effects of Gain-Loss Framing and Emotion-Inducing Imagery

An experiment (N = 455) was conducted to examine the persuasive effects of two stylistic elements: gain-loss framing and emotionally evocative imagery. The theoretical model specified that perceived message valence is a direct result of the two elements and that valence subsequently influences emotional and cognitive responses and ultimately behavioral intention. With two positive, attractive message topics (free travel to the Caribbean and free tablet PC), three message conditions varied the coupling of frame and image (matched, mismatched, and no image). Results from structural equation modeling largely indicate that gain framing with matched image led to stronger effects on mediators and persuasion.

Informational and emotional daily messages to reduce red and processed meat consumption

In the present study we tested a daily messaging intervention aimed at promoting the reduction of red and processed meat consumption (RPMC). We randomly allocated 180 young adults to three different message conditions. Participants in the informational condition read messages on the consequences of excessive RPMC on one's health and the environment. Participants in the emotional condition read messages eliciting anticipated regret for the consequences of excessive RPMC on one's health and the environment. Participants in the control condition read messages on the health and the environment consequences of sugar consumption. We sent messages through a chatbot every morning for two weeks. RPMC, attitude, intention, and anticipated regret regarding RPMC were measured three times: before the two-week messaging intervention (baseline), immediately after the intervention (post intervention) and two months thereafter (follow up). RPMC was also measured through food diaries, completed for two weeks after the intervention. Compared to the control condition, participants exposed to emotional messages reduced RPMC at follow up, while this was not the case for participants exposed to informational messages. In addition, anticipated regret and intention mediated the effects of emotional messages on RPMC. Implications for devising effective messaging interventions to change RPMC are discussed.

Phone messages affect the detection of approaching pedestrians in healthy young and older adults immersed in a virtual community environment.

BackgroundMobile phones are increasingly associated with accidents while walking. Little is known, however, about the impact of phone messaging on the actual perception of other pedestrians. This study aimed to investigate the extent to which the detection of approaching pedestrians is affected by the sensory modality (text or audio) of phone messages in young vs. older adults.MethodsEighteen healthy young (24 ± 2.9 years) and 15 older adults (68 ± 4.2 years) performed a phone message deciphering task, an obstacle detection task, and a dual-task condition combining both tasks. Participants were tested while seated and viewing a virtual subway station (VE) in a helmet mounted display. As they were passively moved within the VE one of three virtual pedestrians randomly approached them from the center (0°), right (+40°) or left (+40°). When present, phone message conditions were delivered at obstacle movement onset and presented either as (1) text messages on the screen of a virtual phone or (2) audio messages delivered through earphones. Participants were instructed to press a joystick button as soon as they detected the approaching virtual pedestrian and to report the message content at the end of the trials.ResultsYoung and older participants showed delayed obstacle detection times with vs. without text messages. Older adults further showed reduced accuracy of message report for texts compared to audio messages. In both groups, audio messages yielded no difference in obstacle detection time or accuracy of message report compared to the no message condition.ConclusionsFindings indicate that text messages prolong the detection of approaching pedestrians, suggesting that they compromise safe ambulation in community environments. Older adults, who show larger deteriorations on the obstacle detection and message deciphering tasks, may be at even greater risk of collision. Audio messages could be a safer alternative for on-the-go communication.

Effects of Age on Obstacle Avoidance while Walking and Deciphering Text versus Audio Phone Messages

Background: Widely popular among young, and more recently older adults, mobile phones are increasingly used while walking. Knowledge of the impact of phone message modality (e.g., text vs. audio) on the ability to avoid collisions with other pedestrians, however, remains limited. Objectives: This study aimed to investigate the extent to which the circumvention of an approaching pedestrian is affected by text versus audio phone messages in healthy young and older adults. Method: Sixteen young (aged 24 ± 3 years) and 14 older adults (aged 68 ± 4.5 years) were tested while walking and viewing a virtual environment depicted as a subway station in a helmet-mounted display. As they walked, one of three virtual humans randomly approached from the center (0°), right (+40°), or left (+40°). Phone messages, when present, were delivered at obstacle displacement onset and presented either as text messages on a virtual phone or as audio messages delivered through earphones. Participants were instructed to avoid collisions with pedestrians and to fully report the message content at the end of trials. Results: Both groups showed decreased accuracy of message report (AMR), slower walking speed, and more collisions in response to text versus audio messages. Compared to young adults, older adults showed greater reduction in AMR, more collisions, and similar speed adaptation in the presence of text messages. In both age groups, no significant differences in walking speed emerged between the audio message and the no-message condition, but only older adults experienced collisions and reduced AMR with the audio messages. Obstacle clearance and the onset time of avoidance strategy were not affected by message condition. Conclusions: Results suggest that coping with text messages while walking leads to greater risk of collision and alters message deciphering accuracy, while audio messages stand out as a safer and more efficient alternative for on-the-go communication. In general, older adults experienced larger motor-cognitive interference than younger adults, resulting in reduced AMR and more collisions without further changes in gait adaptation. Consequently, older adults failed to prioritize their safety when attending to phone messages while walking.

A test of psychological and electrodermal changes immediately after the delivery of 3 analgesic treatment messages

Introduction:Placebo analgesia often results when a pain reduction treatment message is delivered to a patient or research participant. Little information exists regarding the psychological changes that are immediately triggered by the delivery of a treatment message.Objectives:This experiment tested the impact of 3 different analgesic treatment messages on the expectations, feelings, and electrodermal activity of participants anticipating a pain stimulus.Methods:In laboratory sessions, healthy participants (N = 138) were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 conditions in a between-subject design. The design included a no treatment message control condition and 3 treatment message conditions: a standard analgesic message, an analgesic treatment with side-effect message, and a double-blind analgesic message. After the treatment message manipulation, measures were taken of: treatment efficacy expectations, pain experience expectations, pretask anxiety, positive affect, negative affect, and electrodermal activity.Results:Overall, the dependent measures showed relatively few correlations. Furthermore, across all 3 message conditions, treatment-specific expectations were greatly increased compared with the control condition. Finally, participants in the double-blind message condition displayed elevated negative affect.Conclusion:All 3 analgesic treatment messages produced a stronger immediate influence on treatment efficacy expectations than on the other dependent measures. Treatment messages can alter negative affect along with expectancies. The low correlations found between dependent measures suggest that different patterns of psychological responses may emerge from analgesic treatment messages depending on contextual factors.

Testing the effects of messaging on physical activity motivation in active and non-active adults

ObjectivesThis study investigated the effects of messaging on physical activity (PA) motivation, and whether the effectiveness of messages aimed to promote either affective benefits, physical health benefits, or a combination of benefits varied based on one’s current PA status. MethodsAdult participants (N = 188) completed an online survey assessing demographic information and current stage of change. They then viewed one of four randomly assigned promotional flyers for a campus PA program. The flyers mentioned either the: (a) affective benefits of participation, (b) physical health benefits, (c) a combination of affective and physical health benefits, or (d) a control message. Participants then responded to questions about the flyers, their perceived control for participating, followed by their interest, intention to participate, likelihood of participating, and whether they wanted to sign-up. ResultsA 2 (activity status) x 2 (affective message) x 2 (physical health message) between-subjects ANOVA found that the effectiveness of the promotional messages on overall cognitive motivation (i.e., a combination of interest, intention, and likelihood of participating) varied based on the respondents’ PA status. Simple effects showed that messages promoting affective benefits led to greater scores for those who are active. A logistic regression showed that PA status, message condition, and their interactions were non-significant predictors of participants’ agreeing to schedule a session in the program. ConclusionUsing specific messages to sell PA may help increase motivation. However, the type of message that effectively promotes PA appears to vary depending on the message receiver’s current PA.

Short Message Service Reminders to Parents for Increasing Adolescent Human Papillomavirus Vaccination Rates in a Secondary School Vaccine Program: A Randomized Control Trial

PurposeIn Victoria (Australia), the human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine is delivered within a state-wide secondary school vaccine program, administered by local government. This study aimed to test the hypothesis that sending a short message service (SMS) reminder to parents who had consented to their child's receiving the HPV vaccine would lead to greater uptake of the vaccine within the program. The secondary aim was to assess the effect of self-regulatory versus motivational message content in the SMS. MethodsA randomized control trial design was used across 31 schools within seven local government areas. Parents of 4,386 consented adolescents were randomized into three study conditions: motivational SMS versus self-regulatory SMS versus no SMS. Follow-up extended beyond the final school visit to the end of the calendar year to capture those who may have attended a catch-up vaccination session. ResultsOn the day of the final school visit, 85.71% of consented students in the control condition received the HPV vaccine, compared with 88.35% (2.64% point increase) in the motivational message condition, and 89.00% (3.29% point increase) in the self-regulatory message condition, χ2 (2, N = 4,386) = 8.31, p = .016. Both intervention messages were similarly effective at increasing vaccination rates. This effect was maintained in the extended follow-up period. ConclusionsThe trial findings supported the hypothesis that SMS reminders to parents/guardians would lead to greater uptake of the HPV vaccine in adolescents participating in school-based vaccination. Also, this effect was observed whether we used a motivational or self-regulatory message framework. Trial registrationAustralian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (ACTRN12617001307392). Registration Date: September 12, 2017. Retrospectively registered.

The Development of Video Messages to Reduce Binge Drinking: Focus Group Results.

The current study examined college students' perceptions of loss framed and gain framed messages aimed at reducing binge drinking. Using focus groups (n = 3) consisting of undergraduates (n = 131), an iterative process was undertaken to ensure the acceptability and construct validity of loss framed and gain framed video messages. Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected. Results across all focus groups demonstrated that each message condition possessed strong construct validity. Participants in focus Group 3 rated messages as moderately to highly acceptable and acceptability ratings across loss framed messages and gain framed messages were comparable. These findings demonstrate the importance of focus group testing in the development of brief alcohol interventions among college students. Messages used in the currents study will be included in a video intervention aimed at reducing binge drinking among college students.

Should We Activate Risk Perceptions in the Context of Suicide Prevention? Examining Fear Appeals, Help-Seeking Determinants, and Help-Seeking Sources Among University Employees Who Suffer from Depression.

Health promotion strategies have largely focused on activating risk perceptions for health conditions in resistant at-risk populations in order to induce behavior change. Yet, doing so remains a questionable approach when promoting help-seeking behaviors among individuals who suffer from depression because clinical symptoms can negatively affect interpretations and responses to such efforts. This study sought to test the effects and effectiveness of risk-based health messaging utilizing fear appeals on help-seeking determinants, intentions, and sources. One hundred seventeen university employees affected by symptoms of depression were recruited to participate in a lab-based experimental setting. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three message conditions that differed in strength of fear appeal (low, moderate, high) when inducing suicide risk perceptions and promoting help-seeking. Consistent with previous research, participants indicated high stigma perceptions and low intentions to seek help. Risk-based messaging strategies such as fear appeals did not have an effect on help-seeking intentions in this sample. Intentions were largely determined by positive outcome expectations and social norms, whereas efficacy perceptions were positive and not a predictor of help-seeking intentions. Participants were most likely to seek help from intimate partners and friends and least likely to utilize a help-line. Health promotion messages should contain cues that activate, rather than change, the already positive outcome expectations of seeking help when targeting at-risk populations. Future research should explore possibilities for health promotion and education among support networks of those who suffer from depression and anxiety.