Message Conditions Research Articles

Should We Activate Risk Perceptions in the Context of Suicide Prevention? Examining Fear Appeals, Help-Seeking Determinants, and Help-Seeking Sources Among University Employees Who Suffer from Depression.

Health promotion strategies have largely focused on activating risk perceptions for health conditions in resistant at-risk populations in order to induce behavior change. Yet, doing so remains a questionable approach when promoting help-seeking behaviors among individuals who suffer from depression because clinical symptoms can negatively affect interpretations and responses to such efforts. This study sought to test the effects and effectiveness of risk-based health messaging utilizing fear appeals on help-seeking determinants, intentions, and sources. One hundred seventeen university employees affected by symptoms of depression were recruited to participate in a lab-based experimental setting. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three message conditions that differed in strength of fear appeal (low, moderate, high) when inducing suicide risk perceptions and promoting help-seeking. Consistent with previous research, participants indicated high stigma perceptions and low intentions to seek help. Risk-based messaging strategies such as fear appeals did not have an effect on help-seeking intentions in this sample. Intentions were largely determined by positive outcome expectations and social norms, whereas efficacy perceptions were positive and not a predictor of help-seeking intentions. Participants were most likely to seek help from intimate partners and friends and least likely to utilize a help-line. Health promotion messages should contain cues that activate, rather than change, the already positive outcome expectations of seeking help when targeting at-risk populations. Future research should explore possibilities for health promotion and education among support networks of those who suffer from depression and anxiety.

Depression’s response to fear tactics: An integration of health promotion principles, eye-tracking technology and clinical tools

ObjectiveThe main objective of this study was to utilize eye-tracking technology and self-report measures to test the effectiveness of varying strengths of fear appeals when educating about the seriousness of depression and motivate depressed individuals to engage in health-information-seeking. MethodsWe analyzed data from 117 university employees affected by a range of depression symptoms who were randomly assigned to a low-threat, moderate threat, and high-threat message condition in a lab-based experimental setting. Attention patterns were captured while participants viewed the health message. A particular emphasis was placed on understanding the role of valence and arousal in determining attention patterns. ResultsAttentional processes induced emotions (valence) and intensity (arousal) and differed by strength of fear appeal, but were not influenced by symptoms of depression in this study. Arousal mediated the effects of strong fear appeals on attitudes toward information-seeking, whereas negative emotions did not. Conclusion and practice implicationsUntil further research suggests otherwise, caution is warranted when utilizing fear appeals that are highly arousing for health education and promotion.

An Examination of Message Elaboration as a Moderator of Psychological Reactance

The current study advances the literature on psychological reactance theory by examining the moderating role of message elaboration on the reactance process. Participants (N = 512) were randomly assigned to a message condition (freedom-threatening vs. non-freedom-threatening language) in a between-subjects quasi-experimental design. Message elaboration was not manipulated but rather varied naturally. Two topics were examined (energy conservation and organ donation). Results demonstrated that freedom-threatening language was positively associated with perceived freedom threat for both topics. No interaction effect of message elaboration and freedom-threatening language on perceived freedom threat was observed for either topic. Findings are discussed in terms of the theoretical and practical contributions of the current study.

Using deep reasoning questions to improve an email-based sexually transmitted infection prevention intervention

The current study offers preliminary insight into the efficacy of a technology-based question-asking, sexually transmitted infection (STI) prevention program to promote condom use and reduce the incidence of STIs. Participants were 104 college students who were provided safe sex information via 12, email messages, delivered over a four (4) week period. During information delivery, students were randomly assigned to a deep-level reasoning message condition or to a standard message condition. Students assigned to the deep-level reasoning condition were prompted by a question, prior to the delivery of each email message while those assigned to the standard message condition received the email message without a question prompt. Students in the deep-level reasoning condition showed greater ease in suggesting condom use to their partner, were more likely to get tested for an STI and to use a condom during vaginal sex. Those in the standard message condition reported more condom use during anal sex at post-test. These findings suggest that technology-based (email delivered) STI interventions can be used to facilitate positive behavioral change.

The Efficacy of an Event-Specific, Text Message, Personalized Drinking Feedback Intervention.

Tailgating drinking prior to a football game is a type of event-specific drinking associated with increased alcohol use and related problems. Personalized drinking feedback interventions (PFI) are efficacious in reducing alcohol use and problems. The current study aimed to advance understanding of event-specific interventions by examining: (1) the efficacy of an event-specific, text message PFI on tailgating alcohol outcomes, and (2) the extent to which intervention effects generalize to "typical" alcohol outcomes at 1-month follow-up. College students (N = 130; 71% female; 92% white) who reported tailgating within the past 30days and binge drinking when tailgating in the past year completed assessments on tailgating and typical alcohol use. They were randomly assigned to one of two text message conditions delivered on the morning of a home football game: event-specific PFI (TXT PFI) or a control condition. Multilevel modeling examined the association of treatment condition on tailgating and 1-month alcohol outcomes. When tailgating, participants in TXT PFI reported lower estimated peak blood alcohol concentration (eBAC) and consumed less drinks than the control condition. At the 1-month "typical" drinking follow-up, participants in TXT PFI reported lower peak eBAC and fewer alcohol-related problems than the control condition. Perceived tailgating drinking norms were found to statistically mediate the relationship between condition and alcohol outcome at tailgating and 1-month follow-ups. Findings provide preliminary support for the efficacy of an event-specific, text message PFI in reducing both tailgating and typical drinking alcohol outcomes. Event-specific TXT PFI can be used for prevention/intervention of alcohol misuse.

Message framing and regulatory focus effects on destination image formation

This study examines the influence of message framing and how a match or mismatch between message framing and individuals’ regulatory focus can influence their destination image perceptions and visit intentions utilizing attribute framing and regulatory focus fit theories. This study also examines the mediating role of cognitive fluency and emotional state on attribute framing effects on destination image formation and visit intentions. Findings indicate that framing of marketing messages exerts significant influences on consumers' decision making and destination selection process. Consumers under gain-framed message condition tend to have higher destination image perceptions compared to those under loss-framed message conditions. A match between attribute framing and regulatory focus results in formation of better destination image perceptions compared to mismatch. Furthermore, cognitive fluency and emotional state mediate attribute framing effects on destination image formation.

Reframing Aging: Effect of a Short-Term Framing Intervention on Implicit Measures of Age Bias.

Evidence suggests that agist biases may operate implicitly (i.e., automatically and unconsciously) to affect discriminatory attitudes and behaviors toward older adults. However, few studies have tested the malleability of implicit age bias. The present study tests the effect of a framing intervention on implicit age bias in a nationally representative sample of American adults. Participants (N = 767) were randomly assigned to read 1 of 3 framed messages, to an unframed message about aging, or to a control message unrelated to aging. Framed messages emphasized (a) the contributions of older adults to society; (b) aging as a process of accumulating wisdom and energy; and (c) mechanisms through which prejudice against older adults operates. Participants subsequently completed an aging implicit association test (IAT) to assess implicit bias. Relative to the control condition, participants in the 3 framed message conditions displayed lower implicit age bias. No differences were observed between participants in the control condition and those who read the unframed message. Findings indicate that reframing messages about aging can decrease implicit bias against older adults. This study highlights ways for communicators to promote a positive understanding of the aging process, thereby mitigating sources of implicit prejudice.

Examining the effectiveness of using CSR communication in apology statements after bad publicity

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to contribute to understanding the effects of framing apology statements with corporate social responsibility (CSR) communications after a company has suffered negative publicity. Specifically, this study examined the role of CSR fit on consumers’ skepticism toward the apology statement and attitude toward the company compared to a no-CSR message condition. In addition, the study also analyzed the interaction effects between CSR fit and history on skepticism toward the apology statement and attitude toward the company.Design/methodology/approachA 2 (CSR fit: high or low) × 2 (CSR history: long or short) between-subject design was employed to examine the hypotheses. In addition, a no-CSR message group without any mention of CSR activities was included. To test the hypothesized constructs of main interest (i.e. CSR fit and CSR history) and incremental validity in the same set of model equations, this study used a hierarchical regression approach.FindingsThe high CSR fit condition led to less skepticism toward the apology statement and a more positive attitude toward the company than the no-CSR message condition did. The low CSR fit condition, in contrast, led to more skepticism toward the apology statement and a less positive attitude toward the company than the no-CSR message condition did. In addition, the results showed that the interaction effects between CSR fit and history will predict skepticism toward the apology statement and attitude toward the company.Originality/valueThere is little research on the effectiveness of high (congruent) and low (incongruent) CSR fit compared to a no-CSR message condition. To address this gap, this paper compared the effectiveness of the two conditions to a no-CSR condition.

Optimizing Tailored Communications for Health Risk Assessment: A Randomized Factorial Experiment of the Effects of Expectancy Priming, Autonomy Support, and Exemplification.

BackgroundHealth risk assessments with tailored feedback plus health education have been shown to be effective for promoting health behavior change. However, there is limited evidence to guide the development and delivery of online automated tailored feedback.ObjectiveThe goal of this study was to optimize tailored feedback messages for an online health risk assessment to promote enhanced user engagement, self-efficacy, and behavioral intentions for engaging in healthy behaviors. We examined the effects of three theory-based message factors used in developing tailored feedback messages on levels of engagement, self-efficacy, and behavioral intentions.MethodsWe conducted a randomized factorial experiment to test three different components of tailored feedback messages: tailored expectancy priming, autonomy support, and use of an exemplar. Individuals (N=1945) were recruited via Amazon Mechanical Turk and randomly assigned to one of eight different experimental conditions within one of four behavioral assessment and feedback modules (tobacco use, physical activity [PA], eating habits, and weight). Participants reported self-efficacy and behavioral intentions pre- and postcompletion of an online health behavior assessment with tailored feedback. Engagement and message perceptions were assessed at follow-up.ResultsFor the tobacco module, there was a significant main effect of the exemplar factor (P=.04); participants who received exemplar messages (mean 3.31, SE 0.060) rated their self-efficacy to quit tobacco higher than those who did not receive exemplar messages (mean 3.14, SE 0.057). There was a three-way interaction between the effect of message conditions on self-efficacy to quit tobacco (P=.02), such that messages with tailored priming and an exemplar had the greatest impact on self-efficacy to quit tobacco. Across PA, eating habits, and weight modules, there was a three-way interaction among conditions on self-efficacy (P=.048). The highest self-efficacy scores were reported among those who were in the standard priming condition and received both autonomy supportive and exemplar messages. In the PA module, autonomy supportive messages had a stronger effect on self-efficacy for PA in the standard priming condition. For PA, eating habits, and weight-related behaviors, the main effect of exemplar messages on behavioral intentions was in the hypothesized direction but did not reach statistical significance (P=.08). When comparing the main effects of different message conditions, there were no differences in engagement and message perceptions.ConclusionsFindings suggest that tailored feedback messages that use exemplars helped improve self-efficacy related to tobacco cessation, PA, eating habits, and weight control. Combining standard priming and autonomy supportive message components shows potential for optimizing tailored feedback for tobacco cessation and PA behaviors.

Fostering trust and forgiveness through the acknowledgment of others’ past victimization

The present work examines the acknowledgment of past ingroup victimization by adversary outgroup leaders as an effective means to promote intergroup trust. More specifically, through an experimental study we demonstrated that Israeli-Jewish participants who were exposed to Palestinian leaders’ messages acknowledging the Jews’ suffering from anti-Semitic persecutions (past victimization condition) displayed more trust toward outgroup leaders than participants who were exposed to messages acknowledging the Jews’ sufferings from the ongoing conflict (present victimization condition) and participants who were exposed to a control message condition. Further, trust mediated the relationship between acknowledgment of past victimization by rivals and forgiveness toward the outgroup as a whole. The implications of these results for restoring fractured intergroup relations are discussed.

Visual framing effects on emotion and mental health message effectiveness

ABSTRACTBackground: Framing used in health communication makes certain perspectives salient in order to persuade viewers of healthy behavior to improve mental health. Visuals used in these messages, however, do not always appropriately reflect the purpose of the written message and may interfere with message adherence. Because visuals communicate and elicit emotion more powerfully than text, it is important to investigate how visuals themselves are framed (i.e. what they make salient to viewers) and what effect they have on message effectiveness. Depression among college students provides context for this study, as college students suffer from depression more than other populations, and most do not seek help.Method: An online experiment assessed participants’ (N = 488) reactions to depression messages that incorporated visuals that were framed to reflect three stages of depression: suffering, treatment, recovery. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three message conditions in which they viewed three messages and responded to questions pertaining to affective reactions, perceived behavioral attainment, and aspiration.Results: Participants who viewed messages using recovery-related visual frames reported greater positive emotion and increased aspiration to be like the models in the visuals, while those who viewed suffering-related visual frames reported greater negative emotion and decreased aspiration to be like the models. Positive emotion mediated the relationship between recovery-related visual frames and aspiration.Conclusions: Depression messages that use recovery-related visual frames may be more effective than suffering visual frames in motivating help-seeking behaviors among college students with depressive symptoms.

The Suasory Force of Sticky Messages: An Application to the Application of Sunscreen

Stickiness refers to the set of persuasive message properties: simple, unexpected, concrete, credible, emotional, and stories (SUCCES). Heath and Heath (2007) argue that a sticky message is expected to be more memorable and hence more persuasive than a non-sticky message. A 2 (sticky v. non-sticky message) x 3 (pretest v. posttest v. delayed test) longitudinal experiment is employed to examine the persuasiveness of sticky messages on applying sunscreen. Results of a mixed model analysis of variance show that the sticky message produces attitudes and behaviors more favorable to the message recommendation than the non-sticky message. Specifically, a time × message induction non-additive effect was found, which sustained only in the sticky message condition across time. Despite this interesting effect, its explanation remains elusive.

Competing with big business: a randomised experiment testing the effects of messages to promote alcohol and sugary drink control policy

BackgroundEvidence-based policies encouraging healthy behaviours are often strongly opposed by well-funded industry groups. As public support is crucial for policy change, public health advocates need to be equipped with strategies to offset the impact of anti-policy messages. In this study, we aimed to investigate the effectiveness of theory-based public health advocacy messages in generating public support for sugary drink/alcohol policies (increased taxes; sport sponsorship bans) and improving resistance to subsequent anti-policy messages typical of the sugary drink/alcohol industry.MethodsWe conducted a two-wave randomised online experiment assigning Australian adults to one of four health policies (sugary drink tax; sugary drink industry sports sponsorship ban; alcohol tax; alcohol industry sports sponsorship ban). Within each health policy, we randomised participants to one of five message conditions: (i) non-advocacy based message about the size and seriousness of the relevant health issue (control); (ii) standard pro-policy arguments alone; (iii) standard pro-policy arguments combined with an inoculation message (forewarning and directly refuting anti-policy arguments from the opposition); (iv) standard pro-policy arguments combined with a narrative message (a short, personal story about an individual’s experience of the health issue); or (v) standard pro-policy arguments combined with a composite inoculation and narrative message. At time 1, we exposed participants (n = 6000) to their randomly assigned message. Around two weeks later, we re-contacted participants (n = 3285) and exposed them to an anti-policy message described as being from a representative of the sugary drink/alcohol industry. Generalised linear models tested for differences between conditions in policy support and anti-industry beliefs at both time points.ResultsOnly the standard argument plus narrative message increased policy support relative to control at time 1. The standard argument plus narrative and standard argument plus inoculation messages were effective at increasing resistance to the persuasive impact of anti-policy messages relative to control at time 2.ConclusionsDissemination of advocacy messages using inoculation or narrative components can help strengthen public resistance to subsequent anti-policy messages from industry groups.

Text Messages Promoting Mental Imagery Increase Self-Reported Physical Activity in Older Adults: A Randomized Controlled Study.

This study tested whether text messages prompting adults 50 years of age and older to perform mental imagery would increase aerobic physical activity (APA) duration using a randomized parallel trial design. Participants were assigned to an Imagery 1, Imagery 2, or placebo group. For 4 weeks, each group was exposed to two conditions (morning text message vs. no morning text message). In the morning message condition, the imagery groups received a text message with the instruction to mentally imagine performing an APA, and the placebo group received a placebo message. All participants received an evening text message of "Did you do your cardio today? If yes, what did you do?" for 3 days per week. Participants of the imagery groups reported significantly more weekly minutes of APA in the morning text message condition compared with the no morning message condition. Electronic messages were effective at increasing minutes of APA.

Cigarette Constituent Health Communications for Smokers: Impact of Chemical, Imagery, and Source.

Communication campaigns are incorporating tobacco constituent messaging to reach smokers, yet there is a dearth of research on how such messages should be constructed or will be received by smokers. In a 2 × 2 × 2 experiment, we manipulated three cigarette constituent message components: (1) the toxic constituent of tobacco (arsenic vs. lead) with a corresponding health effect, (2) the presence or absence of an evocative image, and (3) the source of the message (FDA vs. no source). We recruited smokers (N = 1669, 55.4% women) via an online platform and randomized them to one of the eight message conditions. Participants viewed the message and rated its believability and perceived effectiveness, the credibility of the message source, and action expectancies (ie, likelihood of seeking additional information and help with quitting as a result of seeing the message). We found significant main effects of image, constituent, and source on outcomes. The use of arsenic as the constituent, the presence of an evocative image, and the FDA as the source increased the believability, source credibility, and perceived effectiveness of the tobacco constituent health message. Multiple elements of a constituent message, including type of constituent, imagery, and message source, impact their reception among smokers. Specifically, communication campaigns targeting smokers that utilize arsenic as the tobacco constituent, visual imagery, and the FDA logo may be particularly effective in changing key outcomes that are associated with subsequent attitude and behavioral changes. This article describes how components of communication campaigns about cigarette constituents are perceived. Multiple elements of a tobacco constituent message, including type of constituent, image, and message source may influence the reception of messages among current smokers. Communication campaigns targeting smokers that utilize arsenic as the tobacco constituent, visual imagery, and the FDA logo may be particularly effective in changing key outcomes among smokers. The effects of such campaigns should be examined, as well as the mechanisms through which such campaigns affect change.

Effect of Flavors and Modified Risk Messages on E-cigarette Abuse Liability.

To measure e-cigarettes' abuse liability compared to conventional tobacco cigarettes under flavor and message conditions amenable to regulation. Two studies used 2×2 within-subjects designs with factors of e-cigarette flavor (Study 1: tobacco vs. menthol; Study 2: cherry vs. unflavored) and message (Study 1: reduced harm vs. no message; Study 2: reduced exposure to carcinogens vs. no message) with cigarette smokers (N(total) = 36). Linear mixed effects models assessed abuse liability for tobacco products. Outcomes included the price after which consumption is zero (the maximum amount participants would pay for a tobacco product) from the multiple choice procedure (MCP) and cigarette purchase task (CPT) and demand elasticity (price sensitivity) from the CPT. In the MCP, the price where consumption reached zero was significantly lower in all e-cigarette conditions except tobacco flavor (message or no message) compared to cigarettes (p < .05 each). Demand elasticity was significantly higher for menthol/no message and unflavored/reduced exposure message conditions relative to cigarettes (p < .05 each). Flavors and modified risk messages included with e-cigarettes may affect e-cigarette abuse liability among smokers, suggesting regulatory pathways to influence demand for conventional and alternative tobacco products.

Designing Anti-Binge Drinking Prevention Messages: Message Framing vs. Evidence Type

ABSTRACTWe investigated whether presenting anti-binge drinking health campaign messages in different message framing and evidence types influences college students’ intention to avoid binge drinking, based on prospect theory (PT) and exemplification theory. A 2 (message framing: loss-framed message/gain-framed message) X 2 (evidence type: statistical/narrative) between-subjects factorial design with a control group was conducted with 156 college students. College students who were exposed to the loss-framed message condition exhibited a higher level of intention to avoid binge drinking in the near future than those who did not see any messages (the control group). This finding was mainly among non-binge drinkers. Regardless of evidence type, those who were exposed to the messages exhibited a higher level of intention to avoid binge drinking than those in the control group. This is also mainly among non-binge drinkers. We also found the main effects of message framing and evidence type on attitude toward the message and the main effect of message framing on attitude toward drinking.

An Experiment Assessing Punitive versus Wellness Framing of a Tobacco-Free Campus Policy on Students' Perceived Level of University Support.

The objective of this study was to examine how different ways of describing a hypothetical tobacco-free campus policy would impact college students’ perceived level of support from the college. In the spring of 2016, we randomized 1885 undergraduate students in a required course to three message conditions in an online survey: control (no message), wellness (emphasizing promoting health and quitting support), and punitive (emphasizing consequences for violating the policy). The dependent variable was perceived organizational support. We selected items previously shown to be relevant for college students (alpha = 0.92 in our data). Given significant non-normality, we used non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis tests with pairwise comparisons to examine differences in perceived organizational support across the three conditions. We examined results by smoking status and if the participant correctly reported the message they received. We found no significant difference in perceived organizational support among students exposed to different tobacco-free campus policy announcements (p = 0.75). We also found no significant difference among smokers (p = 0.66). However, among smokers who correctly reported the message they received, we found significantly lower perceived university support (p = 0.01). Messages about tobacco-free campus policies should focus on the role of policy in supporting a healthy environment instead of punitive enforcement. Campus administrators should use caution when using message frames focusing on consequences of violating newly adopted policies.

Persuasive impact of loss and gain frames on intentions to exercise: A test of six moderators

ABSTRACTThe current study situated loss/gain-framing research in the extended parallel process model and tested whether two message features (dose, efficacy appeals) and four individual difference variables (walking self-efficacy, grit, consideration of future consequences, health information overload (HIO)) moderated the impact of message framing on intentions to engage in physical activity. Adults (N = 341, Mage = 38.09, SD = 10.94) were randomly assigned to one of eight message conditions advocating exercise behavior. All four individual difference variables significantly moderated framing effects such that gain-framed messages were more effective for individuals with lower walking self-efficacy, grit, and consideration of future consequences and loss-framed messages were significantly more effective for individuals with higher walking self-efficacy, grit, consideration of future consequences, and for those with lower HIO.

The visual framing of graphics when used in preventative health digital news packages: exploring the use of a narrative structure as the message infrastructure

Visual framing can improve health-message effectiveness. Narrative structure provides a template needed for determining how to frame visuals to maximise message effectiveness. Participants (N = 190) were assigned to a message condition determined by segments (establisher, initial, peak), graphic (static, animated) and cancer (lung, melanoma). ANOVAs revealed that melanoma was more believable than lung cancer with static graphics at the establisher and peak; narratives were more believable with animated graphics at the peak segment; melanoma elicited greater positive attitudes; graphics in the peak influenced greatest intentions. Animated graphics visually framed to emphasise information at the establisher and peak segments suggest maximum effectiveness.