Mental Skills Training Research Articles

Psychometric evaluation of the acceptance and Action Questionnaire-II (AAQ-II) with Special Operations Forces soldiers

Demand for acceptance-based performance enhancement in the military has increased. This demand has created a need for effective measurement of mental skills training interventions. There is evidence for measuring performance enhancement interventions with the Acceptance and Action Questionnaire-II (AAQ-II), a measure of psychological inflexibility (PI). The existence of multiple versions of the AAQ-II has caused confusion, and practitioners and researchers currently use both the 7- and 10-item versions. To address this need, responses from Special Operations Forces personnel were used to assess the psychometric properties of two versions of the AAQ-II, and to make a recommendation for the preferred model of the AAQ-II. In Study 1 (n = 416), the factor structure was examined using confirmatory factor analysis and alternative model testing. The AAQ-II was determined to be a unidimensional structure and analyses supported removal of the three reverse-scored items from the 10-item version of the scale. Removal of these items decreases cognitive load for participants and improves direct measurement of PI. Two problematic items were also removed, resulting in a 5-item model of PI. The recommended 5-item model demonstrated convergent and criterion validity, similar in magnitude and direction to the 10- and 7-item versions of the model. In Study 2 (n = 284), the retained 5-item model of PI fit a more diverse sample of Special Operations Forces personnel. The 5-item model demonstrated good internal reliability and demonstrated significant moderate relationships with convergent mindfulness factors. Future research should focus on creating response options which are more sensitive to differences in low levels of PI.

The Efficacy Of A Mental Skills Training Course For Collegiate Athletes

PURPOSE: Psychological skills training has been shown to improve athletic performance. However, few studies have looked at the efficacy of mental skills training programs in young athletes. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the efficacy and satisfaction of a mental skills course in collegiate athletes. METHODS: We conducted a 6-session mental skills training program with Division I female collegiate athletes during the fall of 2020. Athletes completed pre-course, post-course, and 4-month questionnaires to assess efficacy and satisfaction of the course. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the athletes were not actively competing at the time of the course or during follow-up surveys. Demographic information was collected and the Athletic Coping Skills Inventory (ACSI, range=0-84) and Mental Toughness Inventory (MTI, range=8-56) were used to assess coping skills and mental toughness at all time points. Satisfaction was assessed on a ten-point scale, with 10 being most satisfied. RESULTS: Fifty-four Division I female athletes participated in the program. Mean age was 19.8 years, 61% reported training in their sport for 8 or more months a year, 26% reported history of mental health conditions, and 22% reported being injured or recovering at the time of participation. For participants with paired pre- and post-course data (n=37, 68.5%), MTI scores improved by a mean 2.6 points (95% CI=1.1-4.1; p=0.001) and ACSI scores improved by a mean 4.0 points (95% CI=0.6-7.4; p=0.02) from pre- to post-course. For participants with paired pre-course and four-month follow-up data (n=25, 46.2%), no change was detected in mean MTI score (p=0.72). However, mean ACSI increased by 3.4 points from pre-course to four-month follow-up (95% CI=0.4-6.4; p=0.03). Overall satisfaction had a median score of 9/10 at the post-course assessment, and eighteen participants (18/37, 48.6%) shared positive free-text comments regarding course delivery, content, and impact. No negative feedback was reported. CONCLUSION: Following a 6-session mental skills course in collegiate female athletes, mental toughness and coping skills scores significantly improved at post-course assessment, with athletes reporting high satisfaction with course content and overall positive experiences.

The Sequence of Basic Mental Skills: A Guide for Psychological Skills Training

Psychological skills training (PST) programs involve the delivery of multiple mental skills. While this ‘packaged’ approach to mental skills training is effective, little is known regarding the proper sequence of such mental skills. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to propose a sequence for the delivery of basic mental skills. The Sequence of Basic Mental Skills consists of four mental skills: (1) goal setting, (2) imagery, (3) self-talk, and (4) relaxation. The premise of this sequence is that each skill will assist in the learning and application of subsequent mental skills. To help practitioners utilize this sequence, a brief case study is included to illustrate the application of this sequence. The Sequence of Basic Mental Skills offers both theoretical and practical implications and addresses a notable gap in the sequencing of mental skills.

Assessing the fidelity of delivery style of a mental skills training programme for young people experiencing homelessness

There is a need for positive youth development/strengths-based approaches to support the wellbeing and social inclusion of young people experiencing or at risk of homelessness. My Strengths Training for Life™ (MST4Life™) uses a strengths-based approach with the aim to improve young people’s resilience, self-worth, wellbeing and engagement in education, employment, and training. This mixed methods study assessed the fidelity of delivery style of the MST4Life™ programme, the extent to which frontline service staff can delivery psychologically informed programmes to service users and identified barriers and enablers to delivering with fidelity to the intended style. Observations of programme delivery (two facilitators per session) took place across early, middle, and late phases of the programme across a pilot phase (n = 18) and main study (n = 45). Facilitators also completed self-reflection forms following each session. The mean observation score was 82.2 ± 15.7 %, and facilitator self-report mean adherence score was 89.3 ± 6.2 % which indicate that the programme was delivered with high fidelity. Quantitative data was also analysed using non-parametric statistical test (Mann-Whitney U Test). There was a significant difference between observation scores for deliverers with postgraduate psychology training compared to deliverers without postgraduate psychology training (p = .029). Qualitative data were analysed using inductive thematic analysis. Barriers and enablers included communication, frontline staff support, logistics, and participant behaviours. Overall, this study highlights that despite the challenges of delivering complex community programmes to young people experiencing homelessness, it was possible for frontline service staff to deliver MST4Life™ with high fidelity.

The impact of mindset and lifestyle on metabolism and immunity for sports performance: a concise systematic review

Introduction: In the scenario of athletes' mindset and performance, the athlete's lifestyle becomes an integral part of this development. It is necessary to focus on the athletes' mindset, exploring the perspective of elite athletes through a qualitative approach, to understand the lifestyle and other factors to which they attribute their success. It is also necessary to manage the training load with a mindset of performance and training progression. Objective: To present the main studies on the positive influence of mindset on athletes' performance, as well as the entire lifestyle scenario for this development. Methods: The present study was followed by a systematic literature review model, according to the PRISMA rules. The research was carried out from July 2021 to September 2021. The quality of the studies was based on the GRADE instrument. The risk of bias was analyzed according to the Cochrane instrument. Results and Conclusion: A total of 94 articles were found, 58 articles were evaluated and 37 were rejected for not meeting the GRADE classification, and only 21 articles were used in this study to compose the textual part. Studies have shown that certain mindsets, such as believing in yourself after failure (called the building mindset) are very beneficial to athletes' perseverance, motivation, and performance improvement. Studies also associate the positive influence of mindset on athletes' performance, showing that mental skills training can lead to better performance in competition. Thus, champion athletes attribute their good mindset (psychological) as the main predictor of competitive success. However, more education needs to be facilitated for coaches and support staff in the area of athletes' psychological skills.

The Efficacy of a Mental Skills Training Course for Collegiate Athletes

Background:Psychological skills training has been shown to improve performance in athletes. However, few studies have looked at the efficacy of mental skills training programs in young athletes.Hypothesis/Purpose:The purpose of this study was to evaluate satisfaction of collegiate athletes with a 6-session mental skills course, and to assess changes in mental toughness and coping skills before and after the course.Methods:We conducted a 6-session mental skills training program with Division I female collegiate athletes during the fall of 2020. Athletes completed pre-course, post-course, and 4-month questionnaires to assess efficacy of the course, as well as their satisfaction. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, none of the athletes were actively competing at the time of the course or during follow-up surveys. Demographic information was collected and the Athletic Coping Skills Inventory (ACSI, range=0-84) and Mental Toughness Inventory (MTI, range=8-56) were used to assess coping skills and mental toughness at all time points. Satisfaction was assessed on a ten-point scale, with 10 being most satisfied.Results:Fifty-four Division I female athletes participated in the program. Mean age was 19.8 years, 61% reported training in their sport for 8 or more months a year, 26% reported history of mental health conditions, and 22% reported being injured or recovering from injury at the time of participation. For participants with paired pre- and post-course data (n=37, 68.5%), MTI scores improved by a mean 2.6 points (95% CI=1.1-4.1; p=0.001) and ASCI scores improved by a mean 4.0 points (95% CI=0.6-7.4; p=0.02) from pre- to post-course. For participants with paired data for pre-course and four-month follow-up (n=25, 46.2%), no change was detected in mean MTI score (p=0.72). There was, however, a mean increase of 3.4 points in mean ASCI from pre-course to four-month follow-up (95% CI=0.4-6.4; p=0.03). Overall satisfaction had a median score of 9/10 at the post-course assessment, and eighteen participants (18/37, 48.6%) shared positive free-text comments regarding course delivery, content, and impact. No negative feedback was reported.Conclusion:Following a 6-session mental skills course in collegiate female athletes, mental toughness and coping skills scores significantly improved at post-course assessment. Athletes reported being highly satisfied with the content of the course and reported overall positive experiences.Figure 1.Mean Changes in ASCI and MTI Scores Over Time

Exploring the Functions of Self-Talk: The Effects of Self-Talk on Sports Performance in Collegiate Athletes

Athletes are often faced with tasks that demand high levels of focus, success, and performance. Professional athletes, specifically, are expected by many people to be the best and perform exceptionally well. Their lives often revolve around their sport, with long hours of training, strict nutrition, and different types of therapy. However, these athletes are human and experience stress from various factors. Athletes can experience external stress (e.g., from the audience or coaches), or internal stress (e.g., negative thoughts or anxiety). These are only a few examples of the stressors that athletes face throughout their careers. Numerous other factors may cause athletes to stress, and consequently, perform poorly. Therefore, athletes may have low levels of confidence, experience anxiety, or lose focus during high stake moments. However, there is a great body of research that shows mental skills training helps athletes overcome stressors and perform better. Self-talk is one example of an intervention for the mental skills found to help individuals perform better through relaxation, goal setting, self-regulation, self-reflection, flow, and self-efficacy. To better understand the effects of self-talk on sports performance, there is a need to identify how self-talk affects athletes in certain sport skills and situations, as there may be important differences or similarities to discover. Therefore, the purpose of this paper was to explore the effectiveness of self-talk on collegiate athletes’ performance across various sports. The findings of this paper suggest that the self-talk is a positive aspect of improving flow, self-efficacy, motivation and stopping general competitive anxiety and a nervousness. In addition, the fact that pairing a challenging statement to negative self-talk would be the effective way to promote athletes’ performance in some situation was found.

The Gold Medal Profile for Sport Psychology (GMP-SP)

The Gold Medal Profile for Sport Psychology (GMP-SP) is a comprehensive, evidence-informed framework integrating mental performance competencies underpinning the athletic performances of Canadian athletes capable of stepping onto the Para/Olympic Podium. The GMP-SP was established to guide Mental Performance Consultants (MPCs) and National Sport Organizations (NSOs) in their design, delivery, tracking, and evaluation of mental skills programs in the Canadian high performance sport system. A Participatory Action Research approach involving a 2-year cyclical process of planning, action, reflection, and evaluation informed the collaborative work of six experienced Canadian MPCs (four men, two women). The group, whose lived experience was integral to the relevance and impact of the inquiry collectively had over 125 years of experience conducting research and consulting in high performance sport. A review of the scientific literature combined with the experts’ professional practice led to the creation of the GMP-SP, which includes 11 mental performance competencies grouped under three broad categories: (a) fundamental competencies (motivation, confidence, resilience), (b) self-regulation competencies (self-awareness, stress management, emotion, and arousal regulation, attentional control), and (c) interpersonal competencies (athlete-coach relationship, leadership, teamwork, communication). Mental health was also included as an overarching construct influencing the achievement of mental and athletic performance. The GMP-SP fulfills an important gap given the current lack of models, methods, and tools to guide the operationalization of mental performance systems in high performance sport that include both intrapersonal and interpersonal competencies. Lay summary: The Gold Medal Profile for Sport Psychology (GMP-SP) is a framework integrating 11 mental performance competencies underpinning podium success in Canadian high performance sport, with attention to mental health. The GMP-SP is intended to guide practitioners and sport leaders in their sport psychology programming and resource allocation to support athletes in their quest for excellence. IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE Mental Performance Consultants (MPCs) can use the Gold Medal Profile for Sport Psychology (GMP-SP) for the assessment, periodization, and implementation of mental skills training programs in high performance sport. The GMP-SP can be used to educate athletes, coaches, and staff about the importance of mental performance skills to achieve success in high performance sport. The GMP-SP uniquely highlights intrapersonal and interpersonal competencies and the interplay between mental performance and mental health. The analogy of gold, silver, and bronze in the GMP-SP can help practitioners, scholars, and sport leaders to plan, test, and allocate adequate resources and funding for the development of mental competencies.

A platform for youth voice in MST4Life™: A vital component of process evaluations

ObjectivesTo explore the factors impacting successful delivery of MST4Life™, a sport psychology informed mental skills training intervention, from the perspective of young people experiencing homelessness. Engaging participants in evaluating programme implementation contributes to developing effective and meaningful programmes and provides opportunities for empowerment and positive development beyond the programmeMethodsQualitative data were collected from 44 participants (female N=20, male N=13, not reported N=11; average age=20.3years), between April 2015 and July 2018. Participants took part in diary rooms to discuss their experiences with MST4Life™ via audio or video recording, or written responses. Data were analysed using reflexive thematic analysis,ResultsThree main themes were developed: (1) programme content: A move towards meaningful and engaging activities; (2) creation of a supportive, safe, and empowering environment; and (3) challenges and barriers to young peoples’ engagement in the programmeConclusionsThe environment purposefully created by programme facilitators and frontline staff helped young people to feel supported, valued, and fosters continued programme engagement. Results highlight a strengths-based delivery style, meaningful and transferrable content as key programme components. This study demonstrates the essential nature of process evaluations and how sport and exercise psychologists can enhance accessibility of data collection methods.

Mental Practice and Manipulative Skills Training Among People With Multiple Sclerosis: A Pilot Study.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a demyelinating disease of the central nervous system that produces both motor and cognitive dysfunctions. Impairments in limb function as a result of MS cause a decline in the performance of activities of daily living (ADLs). To determine whether the use of mental practice (MP) or MP combined with training in motor manipulation skills (skills training) would improve gross and fine motor skills and treatment satisfaction among people with MS. Pilot study with a duration of 3 mo plus 3-mo follow-up. Two MS associations. Thirty-five patients diagnosed with MS of the relapsing-remitting and progressive secondary subtypes, ages 25 to 60 yr. The participants were allocated to one of three groups according to their order of inclusion in the study: (1) MP, (2) MP + skills training, or (3) control group. The treatment protocol had a 6-wk duration and a total of 12 sessions. Outcomes and Measures: Blinded evaluators performed three assessments for each patient (pretreatment, posttreatment, and 3-mo follow-up) using the Nine-Hole Peg Test, Box and Block Test, ABILHAND, and Canadian Occupational Performance Measure (COPM). We found no evidence of benefits in self-perceived performance of ADLs with respect to gross and fine motor skills; however, there was an improvement in perceived satisfaction and in the performance of activities, independent of the treatment received. Perceived ADL performance and satisfaction with performance increases among people with MS when they receive MP, MP + skills training, and conventional rehabilitation treatment. What This Article Adds: Mental practice combined with conventional treatment could contribute to patients perceiving improved performance of ADLs. Self-reported outcome measures, such as the COPM, could provide highly valuable information about occupation performance that may not match the objective evidence.

Effects of Brief Mental Skills Training on Emergency Medicine Residents' Stress Response During a Simulated Resuscitation: A Prospective Randomized Trial.

BackgroundAcute stress impairs physician decision-making and clinical performance in resuscitations. Mental skills training, a component of the multistep, cognitive-behavioral technique of stress inoculation, modulates stress response in high-performance fields.ObjectiveWe assessed the effects of mental skills training on emergency medicine (EM) residents’ stress response in simulated resuscitations as well as residents’ perceptions of this intervention.MethodsIn this prospective, educational intervention trial, postgraduate year-2 EM residents in seven Chicago-area programs were randomly assigned to receive either stress inoculation training or not. One month prior to assessment, the intervention group received didactic training on the “Breathe, Talk, See, Focus” mental performance tool. A standardized, case-based simulation was used for assessment. We measured subjective stress response using the six-item short form of the Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI-6). Objective stress response was measured through heart rate (HR) and heart rate variability (HRV) monitoring. We measured subjects’ perceptions of the training via survey.ResultsOf 92 eligible residents, 61 participated (25 intervention; 36 control). There were no significant differences in mean pre-/post-case STAI-6 scores (−1.7 intervention, 0.4 control; p = 0.38) or mean HRV (−3.8 milliseconds [ms] intervention, −3.8 ms control; p = 0.58). Post-assessment surveys indicated that residents found this training relevant and important.ConclusionThere was no difference in subjective or objective stress measures of EM resident stress response after a didactic, mental performance training session, although residents did value the training. More extensive or longitudinal stress inoculation curricula may provide benefit.

Does Mental and Visual Skills Training Improve High-Value Target Identification and Marksmanship Among Elite Soldiers?

The purpose of this preliminary investigation was to determine the impact of a mental and visual skills training (MVST) program on a high-value target identification and marksmanship (HVTM) task among Special Operations Forces (SOF) Soldiers. Deidentified archival data for 52 male SOF Operators (age: 31.06 ± 4.10 years) were assessed to determine if differences in performance existed between MVST program users (n = 15) and nonusers (n = 37) on a HVTM task performed immediately after a Special Forces Advanced Urban Combat (SFAUC) stress shoot. Independent-samples t-tests were utilized to determine if significant mean score differences existed between groups on specific shooting elements within the HVTM task. Effect size calculations were also performed to assess the magnitude of differences between groups in each measure of performance. Statistically significant differences in performance were not discovered between MVST users and nonusers on overall score (Score) or any individual elements of the HVTM task. However, small to medium effect sizes (d = 0.305-0.493) were observed between groups in Score, Positive Identification Accuracy, Shot Accuracy, and Kill Shot Score. While inconclusive, these findings suggest the use of a MVST program administered by a trained cognitive performance specialist may have the potential to positively influence HVTM performance. More research using larger sample sizes is required to confirm this supposition.

The impact of Mindfulness and Mental Skills Protocols on Athletes’ Competitive Anxiety

Abstract Study aim: This study aims at examining the impact of Mindfulness and mental skills on competitive anxiety in athletes. Material and methods: The present study is quasi-experimental with a pretest-posttest design. Participants were 45 19–30 years old male shooters randomly assigned to three groups with 15 people. The test consisted of six 60-minute mindfulness training/Mental skills/control that lasted six weeks. Measurements included competitive state anxiety based on the competitive state anxiety inventory in two pretest and post-test stages. Data were analyzed using statistical software at a confidence level of 0.05 using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). Results: The results showed that cognitive interventions of Mindfulness and mental skills reduced competitive state anxiety (P < 0.05), but there was no difference between the effectiveness of these methods. (P < 0.05). Conclusions: Six weeks of mindfulness and mental skills training can help improve athletic performance by reducing anxiety levels.

Psychological Interventions to Performance Enhancement in Dance: A Hypothetical Case Study

The purpose of this case study is to improve the performance of dancer Z through psychological intervention. The cognitive behavioral intervention model was applied to support mental skill training, and the conclusion and analysis results were worked out through such steps as guidance of consultation, familiarization of movements, evaluation and assessment, determination of goal, education (problem conceptualization), individual intervention, and outcome evaluation. As a result of a 9-week psychological intervention, Z's performance was notably improved.

Psychological Competencies and 100 Meter Runner Student Athletes’ Performance

This research aims to analyze the suitability of the theoretical model of the psychological competencies model b of the 100-meter runner student athletes with the empirical model. This study uses a quantitative approach. Total 65 (50 men and 15 women) 100-meter runner student athletes who participated in the national athletic championships. Instruments uses the Psychological Competency Scale and time records documentation data on the results of national championships. Data analyzed using partial least square (PLS). The results of the inner model test show a Q-square value of 0.919 (> 0.00). It means that there was suitability of the theoretical model of psychological competency of 100-meter runner student athletes’ with the empirical model. The R-square value of performance is 0.881. It means that the 100-meter runner student athletes’ performance were influenced by psychological competencies by 88,1%. These findings have implications for the selection and coaching of 100-meter runner student athletes. Further research needs to design mental skills training comprehensively based on psychological competencies.

Applying sport psychology in health professions education: A systematic review of performance mental skills training

Introduction Health professionals are expected to consistently perform to a high standard during a variety of challenging clinical situations, which can provoke stress and impair their performance. There is increasing interest in applying sport psychology training using performance mental skills (PMS) immediately before and during performance. Methods A systematic review of the main relevant databases was conducted with the aim to identify how PMS training (PMST) has been applied in health professions education and its outcomes. Results The 20 selected studies noted the potential for PMST to improve performance, especially for simulated situations. The key implementation components were a multimodal approach that targeted several PMS in combination and delivered face-to-face delivery in a group by a trainer with expertise in PMS. The average number of sessions was 5 and of 57 min duration, with structured learner guidance, an opportunity for practice of the PMS and a focus on application for transfer to another context. Conclusion Future PMST can be informed by the key implementation components identified in the review but further design and development research is essential to close the gap in current understanding of the effectiveness of PMST and its key implementation components, especially in real-life situations.

Male professional footballers’ use of mental skills training and counselling: Dilemma or conundrum?

AbstractBackgroundThe study explores male footballers’ experiences of Mental Skills Training (MST) – usually carried out by sports psychologists, and counselling (Herzog & Hays, 2012).MethodThis research's aim begged a qualitative approach – interpretative phenomenological analysis. Semi‐structured, audio‐recorded interviews were used with seven participant‐footballers.FindingsParticipants faced a number of unique challenges throughout their career and consider support pivotal for their success in the industry. Parental and institutional support were key sources for support. Participants experienced counselling as a safe and reliable space, where the therapeutic relationship extended beyond football‐related issues. Participants explained that MST can be self‐taught, is a direct hands‐on approach, can be practised whilst injured, and a first point of contact with other services and forms of therapeutic support. Views on their expectations of MST and counselling services varied: either compatible and should be delivered by the same person, or different and should delivered separately. Participants identified others’ perceptions as possible challenges for footballers accessing MST and counselling.RecommendationsParticipants recommended further research with other athletes, with footballers from diverse countries and cultures, with other helping professionals, with leaders, with managers and sponsors of football, and with sports in general. Participants suggested counsellor‐training in sport psychology, sports psychologists and counsellors’ participation in sporting contexts, and developing working relationships with kindred professions. They also argued for awareness campaigns with the general public and with stakeholders. An amendment to the local national policy should incorporate mental and social well‐being of athletes as a priority for sporting institutions.

Co-creation and collaboration: A promising approach towards successful implementation. Experience from an integrated communication and mental health skills training programme for Japanese General Practice

IntroductionThis paper describes the co-creation and delivery of an integrated training programme in communication and depression assessment & management for Japanese GPs. MethodsExperts in communication and depression from EACH and WONCA developed a framework and filled it with content. Through iterative discussions with the Japanese participants and experts during delivery, the training was further adjusted to match local needs. It included didactic and experiential training methods with an emphasis on practicing and feedback. A “train-the-trainer” component helped participants develop their own trainer skills to enhance dissemination of the training in Japan. ResultsSix Japanese GPs participated in two one week training-modules in May and November 2018. To aid implementation participants received online supervision on depression management and on teaching between the two modules and after the second module. Evaluation of the content of the training, the teaching methods and the participatory approach was positive. More than two years after the training, many elements of the training continue to be used in daily practice with the GPs teaching communication as well as depression management skills. ConclusionThe method of co-creation is promising. Research is needed to confirm that it is effective in transfer to clinical practice.

Exploring the Perceived Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic Social Distancing Measures on Athlete Wellbeing: A Qualitative Study Utilising Photo-Elicitation.

Countries all over the globe have implemented mandatory social distancing measures in an attempt to suppress and control the spread of the Coronavirus disease (COVID-19). This enforced period of isolation, disruption to normal training routines and competition cancellation, could be having an adverse effect on the mental health and wellbeing of athletes. This study sought to explore the perceived impact of the COVID-19 social distancing measures on athlete wellbeing. Fourteen elite athletes who were unable to train or compete due to government imposed lockdown measures were recruited to participate in this qualitative study. Utilising the photo elicitation method, participants were asked to take a series of photographs that represented their experiences as athletes living in lockdown. These photographs were used to guide discussions in follow up unstructured interviews. Reflexive inductive thematic analysis identified three main themes that captured athletes’ experience of social distancing measures and the implications for their wellbeing: (1) threats to wellbeing; (2) adapting routines and maintaining motivation; and (3) reflecting on participation in competitive elite sport. The initial sudden loss of sport in the athlete’s lives posed a threat to their wellbeing, but over the duration of the lockdown period the athletes developed numerous strategies to protect their wellbeing. Furthermore, their time away from sport encouraged them to reflect on their athletic identity and to make life changes that would protect their wellbeing during the rest of the lockdown period and when they returned to sport. A number of immediate practical recommendations are offered for athlete support personnel working with athletes during the crisis, these include developing self-care strategies and social networks, adapting routines, setting new goals and encouraging the pursuit of dual-careers. Future research is encouraged to investigate how practitioners can deliver effective psychological support through tele-consulting, and to consider whether their support is best focused on therapeutic counselling or mental skills training during the pandemic.

Determining Factors of Psychological Performance and Differences among Age Categories in Youth Football Players

Within the determining factors of psychological performance, mental toughness is considered a multidimensional factor, comprising cognitive, affective, and behavioural components together with self-confidence, which is related to success in sports performance as well as psychological health and well-being. The aim of this study was to analyse the relationship between different factors composing mental toughness and age categories in young football players, in order to determine the presence of specific psychological skills in their formative progression. A total of 118 male players (16.91 ± 2.42 years old) completed the Spanish version by Cernuda (1988) of the original Psychological Performance Inventory (PPI) by Loher (1982, 1986). The results indicated significant differences in four variables (negative energy control, attention control, visual and image control, motivational level) on three different age categories, where the U19 category showed the best results for all the variables, decreasing afterwards in the semi-professional category. Significant correlations were established between mental toughness variables and age categories, where the age category variable was significantly correlated in a positive way with attention control, visual and image control, and motivational level. In the same line, the variable self-confidence correlated positively with negative energy control, attention control, motivational level, attention control, and positive energy. The assessment of psychological variables such as mental toughness, taking into account the formative stage, may be helpful for both coaches and players when selecting adequate mental skill training for improving competitive performance and sporting success, as well as for positive and healthy psychological development and well-being.