Member States Of Community Research Articles

Tourism in the East African Community (EAC): Challenges, opportunities, and ways forward

The Economic Road Map and Visions of the East African Community member states (Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda, and Burundi) view tourism development not only as a key pillar for national development, but most importantly as a mechanism to alleviate poverty, generate foreign revenue for the government, and contribute to wildlife conservation. With exception of Kenya and Tanzania, which also have a well-developed coastal tourism segment, the remaining East African Community countries are landlocked, with nature and wildlife remaining as the only core tourism assets. Yet, their Economic Road Map and Visions foresee tourism as a key contributor to transforming their economies in the years to come . While this sounds like a honorable aspiration, most tourism revenues have been generated through narrow tourism products, such as wildlife and national parks, based on a few species (i.e. the big five and the mountain gorillas). Other challenges affecting the potential for tourism to flourish include political stability and governance, infrastructure development, service standards, and human capacity just to name a few. In this paper, drawing upon literature and previous research experiences of the authors, an overview on the state of tourism in the East African Community is presented with the aim to assess the main challenges, opportunities, and offer some reflections on possible ways forward for tourism development in the region.

The EMS and the international monetary system: towards greater stability

The European Monetary System (EMS) is an attempt to achieve greater stability of monetary relationships between member states of the European Community. The author examines the theoretical foundations of such a scheme before discussing the experience of the EMS since its establishment in 1978. Particular attention is paid to the problem of harmonising the different monetary objectives of member states within the EMS and the role of the European Currency Unit in achieving harmonisation. This leads to an analysis of how greater stability may be achieved between the EMS and other currency areas and of how international monetary stability may be improved.

Optimization of sustainable buildings envelopes for extensive sheep farming through the use of dynamic energy simulation

Extensive sheep farming can be seen as a marginal market, compared to other livestock and agricultural activities, taking into account only the economic absolute values. But for many rural marginal areas within the European Community member states, in particular for those located in the Mediterranean area on hills or mountains with high landscape value, extensive sheep farming is not only the longest practiced animal farming activity, but also the most interesting considering its adaptability to the territorial morphology and the restrictions that have been established over the years in terms of sustainable rural development practices. At the moment, most of the structures used in this type of farming are built using low cost and sometimes recycled, but often unsuitable, materials. Few specific studies have been carried out on this particular issue assuming, presumably, that the very low profit margins of these activities made impossible any restructuring. Taken this into account, the new Rural Development Plans that will be issued in 2014 will surely contain some measure dedicated to innovations in farming structures and technology towards facilitating the application of the principles of energy optimization. This is the framework in which the present research has developed. The software that has been applied to perform the energy optimization analysis is the dynamic energy simulation engine Energy Plus. A case study farm has been identified in the small village of Ceseggi (PG), situated in Central Italy. For the case study optimum thermo hygrometric conditions have been identified to ensure the welfare of animals and operators and it has been hypothesized the insertion of an ideal HVAC system to achieve them. Afterwards were evaluated the different energy requirements of the building while varying the insulation material used on the vertical surfaces. The greater goal is to verify which could be the best insulation material for vertical surfaces from energy requirement, primary energy and cost points of view and to verify as well if it would be possible to achieve optimum environmental conditions by using only passive solutions.

Optimization of sustainable buildings envelopes for extensive sheep farming through the use of dynamic energy simulation

Extensive sheep farming can be seen as a marginal market, compared to other livestock and agricultural activities, taking into account only the economic absolute values. But for many rural marginal areas within the European Community member states, in particular for those located in the Mediterranean area on hills or mountains with high landscape value, extensive sheep farming is not only the longest practiced animal farming activity, but also the most interesting considering its adaptability to the territorial morphology and the restrictions that have been established over the years in terms of sustainable rural development practices. At the moment, most of the structures used in this type of farming are built using low cost and sometimes recycled, but often unsuitable, materials. Few specific studies have been carried out on this particular issue assuming, presumably, that the very low profit margins of these activities made impossible any restructuring. Taken this into account, the new Rural Development Plans that will be issued in 2014 will surely contain some measure dedicated to innovations in farming structures and technology towards facilitating the application of the principles of energy optimization. This is the framework in which the present research has developed. The software that has been applied to perform the energy optimization analysis is the dynamic energy simulation engine Energy Plus. A case study farm has been identified in the small village of Ceseggi (PG), situated in Central Italy. For the case study optimum thermo hygrometric conditions have been identified to ensure the welfare of animals and operators and it has been hypothesized the insertion of an ideal HVAC system to achieve them. Afterwards were evaluated the different energy requirements of the building while varying the insulation material used on the vertical surfaces. The greater goal is to verify which could be the best insulation material for vertical surfaces from energy requirement, primary energy and cost points of view and to verify as well if it would be possible to achieve optimum environmental conditions by using only passive solutions.

Comparative Advantage and Economic Performance of East African Community (EAC) Member States

The researchers have investigated comparative advantage in the East African Community member states. They have also investigated economic performance of the member states. Balassa’s Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA) index was used to establish member states’ comparative advantage. An analysis of real GDP, employment levels and stability of exchange rates was used to measure their economic performance. The results show Kenya has comparative advantage in 471 product codes, Tanzania in 471 products, Uganda in 437 product codes, Rwanda in 275 products codes and Burundi in 152 product codes. There is therefore evidence that the member states have revealed comparative advantage although in limited products and that economic indicators show they have performed well. However, there is a need that GDP growth rates should exceed population growth rates in order to have sustainable economic growth.

Empowering people through integrated water resource management practices

Approximately 64 per cent of Africa’s land surface lies within its 63 transboundary river basins as compared to 47 per cent globally. For the southern Africa region, defined by the boundaries of member states of the Southern African Development Community (SADC), 16 transboundary basins provide nearly 80 per cent of the region’s available water resources. All but one continental SADC state has over 50 per cent of their land mass in transboundary river basins. Some countries rely on more than 50 per cent of their water needs flowing from outside of their borders. In this context, water cooperation has been a serious matter for many African countries throughout their history and is increasingly so as their economies grow and become increasingly integrated.

Correlations between ICT and records policy integration and court case management system functionality

PurposeFrom 2009 to 2011, the International Records Management Trust conducted a research project called Aligning Records Management with ICT/E‐government and Freedom of Information in East Africa, with funding from the International Development Research Centre. The research was concerned with the integration of records management components into ICT/e‐government and freedom of information initiatives, which are priorities for the governments in East Africa. This paper aims to discuss these issues.Design/methodology/approachThe research focused on the governments of the member states of the East African Community; Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Rwanda and Burundi. In each of these countries, research teams examined the level of records management functionality in new or planned court case management systems, where possible.FindingsThe findings demonstrated how the lack of a national regulatory framework for records management, at the highest level, could affect the design and implementation of systems, at the lowest, technical level.Originality/valueThis paper draws together the case studies prepared by the author from data collected by the national research teams, to provide an overview of the issues encountered in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania, which were the member states of the original East African Community, and demonstrate the correlation between ICT and records policy integration and court case management system functionality.

欧州政治協力（EPC）の進展とイギリス

The purpose of EPC, launched in 1970, was to coordinate foreign policies among the Member States of the European Community by ensuring mutual understanding on the international problems through regular exchange of information and consultations, strengthening their solidarity by harmonizing their views….The question is why the need to strengthen their solidarity through mutual understanding among the Six arose in the midst of détente? Moreover, why did it happen almost simultaneously with the achievement of British accession to the EC? The reasons can be considered along the two aspects: the way EPC was taking shape under the circumstances of détente, and the way British diplomatic attitude was involved in the formation and the progress of EPC.It is obvious that both aspects were closely interrelated, and promoted by the two different forces of détente, between the two Superpowers, and between the East and the West on the European continent. Because of American indifference toward the problems of Europe, the UK and the Six became active in the formation of European détente where they put emphasis on the Western value of the freedom of movement, against the Eastern insistence on the status quo. As a result, EPC became a driving force in promoting European détente.In contrast to the general understanding of British negative attitude toward supranational European integration, this study presents a different view that the UK is a positive and active participant rather than an observer in the process of European integration in the sphere of Foreign Policy as an intergovernmental character.First, in order to discuss the formation of EPC, the failure of French attempt, early in 60s, to pursue European political framework excluding the UK, is surveyed, while Atlantic attitude of British policies are examined. Secondly, the process of convergence among the UK, France and West Germany, early in 70s, in terms of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE) is examined. The process indicates the formation of Western approach, through which the importance of EPC as a vehicle of the European détente policy became eminent as compared to NATO. Finally, the process of the confirmation of EPC leading to the Single European Act is surveyed. In the process, British positive approach toward the establishment of European Foreign Policy is examined by analyzing its proposal for the Policy.

Modeling Exchange Rate Dynamics Determination a Study from the Emerging Market Economy of Tanzania

This study constructs a macro-econometric model to analyze the exchange rate dynamics of the emerging market economy of Tanzania. After analyzing the exchange rate dynamics, the study develops an exchange rate forecasting model based on the macroeconomic variables dynamics which co-integrate with the exchange rate dynamics. The model enables the identification of key economic variables that dictate the exchange rate dynamics in Tanzania, as well as enabling determining of the impact of exogenous shocks on these economic variables and the policy implications on the nominal exchange rate. This study provides a basis for comparing alternative options in regard to determining exchange rate dynamics and hence determining the foreign exchange rate risk. In order to see the short-term and long-term effects of Government policies, dynamic policy simulations are conducted for the period 1986-2006. The short-term effect of a certain economic policy, which is connected to the econometric model, is measured through the difference between the shocked (disturbed solution) and control solution. The model developed, and the policy implications derived from it, provides important guidelines for Tanzanian policy makers, as the results suggest that Tanzania would benefit from the effects of monetary and external trade policies reform. This study not only provides a framework for determining and forecasting nominal exchange rate dynamics for the emerging market economy of Tanzania, but is also applicable to other emerging market economies in Africa, including member states of East African Community, which also have been experiencing the same economic evolution.

The ORR railway management maturity model and its use in benchmarking safety and securing continued improvement

Ensuring that industry is maintaining and improving health and safety in an environment of economic uncertainty and rapid change requires an effective approach to inspecting the management arrangements in place within companies.As economic regulator for the largest infrastructure operator in the UK and the safety enforcing authority for most of the UK's railway undertakings, the Office of Rail Regulation (ORR) has a pivotal role in securing sustained improvement in both the safety and performance of the UK Railway industry. ORR has responsibility to ensure that the safety related activities of the industry are effective and efficient. This has led to an approach which is set out in ORR's 5 year strategy initiated in 2009.In the ORR strategy we state that we expect industry to achieve excellence in a number of areas, including that of safety management, culture and risk control. We have defined what we mean by excellence in these areas and developed a way to judge the management capability of railway companies. We have called this approach the railway management maturity model (RM3).RM3 describes what excellent management capability would look like for key elements of an organisation's safety management system. It also describes what management capability would look like for an ad hoc (poorly) managed company, and for three other levels between ad hoc and excellent. Evidence we collect during our inspections and investigations is compared against the descriptions of each level and a judgment made of health and safety management capability of the company.Our approach allows us to find out where there are weaknesses in the management system and find areas of good practice, which should be adopted more widely both by the organisation and others in the railway industry. Our approach is to create an environment where industry solves its own problems. RM3 provides a powerful benchmarking tool to facilitate this. RM3 has been used a number of times and is part of ORR's inspection regime. The approach is being looked at by the European Railway Agency with a view to encouraging more widespread use within European Community member states. This paper outlines how we have drawn up the RM3 model It then presents our approach to securing improvement so that organisations continue to maintain and improve good standards of safety for both workers and those affected by the operation of the railway.The paper covers a number of conference themes:• System safety and risk management;• Improving human performance and compliance with safety rules;• Safety culture;• How the safety management system may develop; and• Data collection and use and benchmarking safety performance.

The EU–SADC Economic Partnership Agreement Negotiations: ‘locking in’ the neoliberal development model in southern Africa?

This article focuses on the negotiation of Economic Partnership Agreements (epas) which form the central focus of the commitments made in the Cotonou Agreement, signed in 2000 by the European Union and the African, Caribbean and Pacific (acp) states. epas are part of a much wider trend witnessed since the creation of the World Trade Organization (wto), characterised by the proliferation of bilateral free trade agreements. The article argues that both the material and ideational interests of the EU need to be considered alongside the historical context of EU–acp relations. The EU is making a concerted effort to ‘lock in’ neoliberalism across the seven different sub-regions of the acp group by negotiating epas that include both reciprocal trade liberalisation and various ‘trade-related’ issues. In this way epas will go beyond the requirements for wto compatibility, resulting in a reduction of the policy space for acp states to pursue alternative development strategies. The article then considers the potential developmental impact of epas with reference to the negotiations with seven of the 15 member states of the Southern African Development Community (sadc). It is argued that the EU is promoting ‘open regionalism’, which poses a threat to the coherence of the regional project in southern Africa.

The European phosphorus balance

Phosphorus (P) is considered a potentially critical resource because reserves are limited; it is required by all creatures, and it cannot be substituted. In this paper a substance flow analysis of phosphorus for the former 15 member states of the European Community (EU15) is presented. In order to consider the heterogeneity of the database with regard to quantity and quality all data are considered with uncertainty ranges. Error propagation and data reconciliation are performed applying the software STAN. Comparing basic and reconciled data shows that the result is reliable enough to allow the following conclusions: the system of the EU15 is largely dependent on imports of phosphorus. Net per capita consumption in the EU15 is 4.7kgP/yr of which only 1.2kgP/yr reach the consumer. The main losses are a net accumulation in agricultural soils (2.9kgP/yr), followed by losses to landfills (1.4kgP/yr) and to the hydrosphere (0.55kgP/yr). Only 0.77kgP/yr are recycled. Optimizing phosphorus fertilization, collecting and recycling of phosphorus-rich wastes, increasing the connection of households to sewer systems, and implementing tertiary wastewater treatment comprehensively could reduce Europe's import dependence on phosphorus significantly.

De-convoluting the European Commission Cosmos

The centralized registration procedure allows medicinal products to be prescribed and sold in all 27 Member States of the European Community. The aim of this article is to shed light on the complex rules governing the grant of marketing authorization at the European Commission level. The ‘Decision Making Process’ surrounding the Commission is not well understood because during the review of a new marketing authorization application the focus is on the scientific evaluation carried out by the European Medicines Agency (EMA). However, after receipt of a positive opinion by the EMA the subsequent approval process is not purely an administrative act. Knowledge of the scope, sequence of procedural steps and associated timelines at the Commission is key for accurate project planning which in turn is a prerequisite for timely product launch.

Civil liability of the producer for damage caused by a defective product

The first statute in Europe which regulated liability without fault for damage caused by a defective thing as a separate institute was the Obligation Relations' Act. In the European Community member states the grounds for liability for damage caused by a defective product have differed. Directive 85/374/EC was hence adopted with the aim to harmonise the regulations of the EU member states with regards to this type of liability. The text of this Directive is a compromise balancing the interests of the producers and the consumers in the European Community. Given the doubtless quality of the Obligation Relations' Act, its text was largely taken over by former SFRY countries and was used as a base for adopting new codifications. The paper investigates the manner in which the provisions of the Directive 85/374/EC were transposed into the national laws of former SFRY countries, where special attention is given to comparative solutions. The analysis shows that there are certain differences, that some solutions have both certain advantages and disadvantages, and that the newly adopted regulations are less favourable to the injured party compared to the position that they would have pursuant to the Obligations' Act. In addition, the author has noted certain discrepancies from the EU standards and requirements concerning the implementation of the provisions of the Directive 85/374/EC. The author argues that a better approach is to pass a separate statutes that would harmonize national regulations with the provisions of the above-mentioned Directive rather than to transpose its provisions in the statute governing obligation relations or consumer protection. The author advocates for the harmonization of Serbian legislation with the provisions of the Directive 85/374/EC in this manner.

Paths to Development through Trade: EU-Led Trade Liberalization vs South–South Cooperation

Since its inception in 1957, the member states of the European Economic Community (EEC) have been actively expanding their trade with the more dependent states in the Global South through consecuti...

Plant food supplement (PFS) market structure in EC Member States, methods and techniques for the assessment of individual PFS intake

The popularity of herbal products, especially plant food supplements (PFS) and herbal medicine is on the rise in Europe and other parts of the world, with increased use in the general population as well as among specific subgroups encompassing children, women or those suffering from diseases such as cancer. The aim of this paper is to examine the PFS market structures in European Community (EC) Member States as well as to examine issues addressing methodologies and consumption data relating to PFS use in Europe. A revision of recent reports on market data, trends and main distribution channels, in addition an example of the consumption of PFS in Spain, is presented. An overview of the methods and administration techniques used to assess individual food consumption as a starting point, including their uses and limitations, as well as some examples of studies that collect Food Supplement (FS) information, including herbal/botanical/plant-derived products are also discussed. Additionally, the intake estimation process of food nutrients is described and used to propose the PFS ingredients intake estimation process. Nationally representative PFS consumption data is scarce in Europe. The majority of studies have been conducted in Scandinavia and the UK. However the heterogeneity of definitions, study design and objectives make it difficult to compare results and extrapolate conclusions.

Opening Up African Skies: The Case of Airline Industry Liberalization in East Africa

The three member states of the East African Community (EAC) have made great efforts in modernizing their air transport industry in order to meet the increased demand for international tourism and horticultural export trade. The policy adopted by the sub-region, at independence, to regulate the airline industry was the bilateralism approach with emphasis on reciprocity. Such a policy became a bottleneck in the development of the air transport industry in the sub-region. It became apparent that the EAC member states needed efficient air services and not airlines that served mainly as status symbols. However, the last decade witnessed the liberalization of the aviation sector in the sub-region. This liberalization process is part of a proactive policy to encourage global investment in the sub-region. This has led to the adoption of the Yamoussoukro Decision, which calls for the opening of the African skies. This paper, therefore, critically discusses the process of the airline industry liberalization and its prospects for success in the sub-region.

Availability of data assessing the prevalence and trends of overweight and obesity among European adolescents

To review recent data on objectively measured overweight/obesity in national representative samples of European adolescents (aged 10-18 years), as well as availability of studies assessing trends in overweight/obesity in this target group. Attention was paid to the ability of the data to describe the obesity epidemic, especially in sociodemographic subgroups. Data on prevalence and trends in overweight/obesity among adolescents in the twenty-seven European Community member states, Iceland, Norway and Switzerland, available as scientific publications as well as reports or unpublished data by the end of 2009, were retrieved. Reports on the most recent objectively measured data from national representative samples were selected and described with regard to the years of data collection, sample sizes, response rates, age ranges included, trends by age, type of measures of overweight/obesity, sociodemographic variables and the sources of information. Objectively measured data on national representative samples were identified for only half of the countries, and the trend studies were mainly conducted applying subnational samples. Most studies used the criteria from the International Obesity Task Force (IOTF) to define overweight/obesity, but the age ranges studied and the years of data collection varied, and information on sample sizes and response rates were often not presented. Data on trends of overweight/obesity over time are increasing, and the most recent studies indicate that the prevalence rate of overweight/obesity has stabilized. Few studies reported data by sociodemographic subgroups other than gender and age. Objectively measured data on national representative samples of adolescents appear scattered, and there is a large heterogeneity with respect to the quality and comparability of available data. Increasing use of the IOTF criteria for overweight/obesity contributes to improved comparability across studies. Data by sociodemographic subgroups, and in particular by socio-economic status, are scarce.

Lo spazio aperto nell'agenda della Comunitŕ Europea

space on the EU agenda - Open space is any unbuilt land capable of directly or indirectly supplying environmental, social and economic benefits. Over the last twenty years, the member states of the European Community have shared numerous documents and strategies on optimising opening space as a resource for environmental quality, the wellbeing of peoples and social development. These principles find operational concreteness in three transnational projects commenced in the last decade with the involvement of the interdisciplinary research groups Bugs, Ruros and Urbspace. Natural open space has a multi-functional role which makes it a crucial element for the local project. The growing attention for open space on the part of the European Community requires new reflections so that EU principles and entreaties can find concrete form in instruments of governance of the territory.

Application of Two Quality Indices as Monitoring and Management Tools of Rivers. Case Study: The Imera Meridionale River, Italy

On the basis of the European Water Framework Directive (2000/60), the water resources of the member states of the European Community should reach good quality standards by 2015. Although such regulations illustrate the basic points for a comprehensive and effective policy of water monitoring and management, no practical tools are provided to face and solve the issues concerning freshwater ecosystems such as rivers. The Italian government has developed a set of regulations as adoption of the European Directive but failed to indicate feasible procedures for river monitoring and management. On a local scale, Sicilian authorities have implemented monitoring networks of watersheds, aiming at describing the general conditions of rivers. However, such monitoring programs have provided a relatively fragmentary picture of the ecological conditions of the rivers. In this study, the integrated use of environmental quality indices is proposed as a methodology able to provide a practical approach to river monitoring and management. As a case study, the Imera Meridionale River, Sicily's largest river, was chosen. The water quality index developed by the U.S. National Sanitation Foundation and the floristic quality index based on the Wilhelm method were applied. The former enabled us to describe the water quality according to a spatial-temporal gradient, whereas the latter focused on the ecological quality of riparian vegetation. This study proposes a holistic view of river ecosystems by considering biotic and abiotic factors in agreement with the current European regulations. How the combined use of such indices can guide sustainable management efforts is also discussed.