Member States Of Community Research Articles

EUROPEAN AID POLICIES: SOUTH, EAST, BOTH OR NEITHER?

ABSTRACTThe member states of the European Community contribute more than 45% of the total aid provided by all bilateral foreign aid donors. In addition, the EC foreign aid program is the second biggest budget item of this organization. However, there has been little coordination of the bilateral aid programs of the EC member states. To date, there is no common EC foreign aid policy. The geographic distribution of the aid sent by the EC member states has instead been defined by a mix of old colonial ties, economic interests and humanitarian values. The creation of the European Union, involving further foreign policy coordination among the EU member states, and the opening‐up of Eastern Europe after the fall of Communism have hardly changed this picture. While present aid from the EU and the EU member states as a whole shows a concentration on Africa, the Middle East, South Asia and Eastern Europe, this aid is not guided by any division of labour or common EU principles. Rather, it is determined by the foreign policy interests of each donor state. This situation is not likely to change in the future.

English in Europe: whose language, which culture?

In the context of European integration, language and culture generally are discussed with reference to the individual languages and cultural identities of the European Community (EC) member states. Often implicit and explicit in these discussions is concern with the spread of English and the impact of American culture on the cultures of the EC. This paper approaches these issues from a broad sociolinguistic perspective. Rather than identify English solely with speakers from Great Britain or with artifacts of American culture, it is argued that English belongs to those who use it and therefore has the potential to be a means of expression of European identity. It is further suggested that these social and political issues are related to communicative competence and models of language, central concerns in the decisionmaking of English language teaching specialists in Europe.

On the development of educational policies

The development of educational policies is studied in this paper using the system approach. The most promising areas for application of OR in policy design and evaluation are identified and discussed in terms of illustrative data taken from several countries, namely member states of the European Community.

Brussels and Lugano, Should You Race to the Courthouse or Race for a Judgment?

In international disputes, it is not unusual that jurisdiction for suits concerning the dispute may exist in several places, such as the home countries of the two (or more antagonists). In that case, for both substantive and procedural reasons, each party may be tempted to start litigation in the forum most favorable to it. What happens in such a case? Will the institution of the first action prevent the institution of another, related action elsewhere and, if not, will a rendered in one action be affected, in its enforceability or otherwise, by a rendered in the other? The answer to these questions obviously affects the behavior of the parties. If the institution of an action blocks the institution of a second action elsewhere, each of the antagonists may try to be the first one to start litigation; if the rendering of a in one place affects the enforceability of a later judgment, each party will attempt to expedite the litigation pending in the forum most favorable to it, and to stall the litigation pending in the forum more favorable to its opponent. National answers to these questions vary a great deal,' thus encouraging multiple litigation. In spite of the importance of the resulting problems, and in spite of my general interest in problems of international civil procedure, I have to admit that I was little concerned with the race to the courthouse and the race to judgment until Rudi pointed the resulting problems out to me. One particular attempt to provide a multinational solution is represented by the identical provisions of the so-called Brussels Convention on Jurisdiction and the Recognition and Enforcement of Judgments2 among the Member States of the European Community

Regulation of Agrobacterium gene manipulation.

AbstractThe regulation of biotechnology within the member states of the European Community has developed very significantly over the last 3 yr, and a comprehensive body of legislation, guidance notes, and codes of practice have appeared in the United Kingdom in particular. The recent incident at Birmingham University, where UK Health and Safety Executive inspectors halted work on a genetic manipulation project, highlights the need for scientists to be aware of legislation, to understand its implications, and to comply adequately with its requirements.KeywordsMember StateEnvironmental Protection AgencyNational CourtGenetically Modify OrganismGuidance NoteThese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.

Confirmatory analysis for spiramycin residue in bovine muscle by liquid chromatography/particle beam mass spectrometry

To ensure that residues of veterinary drugs, above their respective maximum residue limits, do not reach the human food supply, European Community regulations specify requirements for detection, quantification and confirmation analytical methods and control procedures. The European Community member states base meat controls on these protocols. A liquid chromatographic/mass spectrometric analysis of spiramycin in calf muscle is presented as a confirmatory method for this compound. A particle beam interface was used, with negative ion chemical ionization mass spectrometry, using methane as the reagent gas. Samples (2 g muscle were prepared by liquid/liquid extraction followed by solid-phase extraction clean-up. On-line liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry of extracts was carried out on a C-18 bonded silica column. The specificity required for a regulatory confirmation procedure was achieved by monitoring five fragment ions with m/z 304, 330, 475, 683 and 684. Variation of the relative ion abundances was less than 20% at the maximum limit of residue, 50 micrograms kg-1. The method specificity was tested for three related compounds: neospiramycin, erythromycin and tylosin. The detection limit based on ion chromatogram peaks areas obtained with control samples was determined to be 20 micrograms kg-1.

Marketing of Imported Food Products in Germany:

Under the principle of mutual recognition any product from a Community member state that is legally produced and sold can be marketed in any other member state. This principle was developed by the European Court in the Cassis jurisdiction. The German legislature has taken this principle into account in implementation of the new paragraph 47(a) in the Lebensmittel – und Bedarfsegenstandegesetz (German Food Law). Gives an overview of the judicial developments which preceded the passing of this new section.

Voting power in the EC decision making and the consequences of two different enlargements

In this paper, we study the voting power in the Council of Ministers of the EC. The purpose of this paper is twofold: first, to evaluate the voting power for the member states of today's Community and, second, to analyse the balance of power after two different enlargements of the Community. The analysis is based on the Shapley-Shubik and the Banzhaf power indices of simple cooperative games. The modified version of the Shapley-Shubik index is used to analyse how the sub-systems of the EC can change the distribution of power in the decision making process.

TOWARDS A EUROPEAN NERVOUS SYSTEM: THE ROLE OF THE ECONOMIC UNION

This article introduces the European Nervous System, a system of interoperable, networked, trans‐European telematics applications linking public administrations in the Community member states. The reasons for its development are described, and progress to date outlined. The article also touches on its funding and management structures, and seeks to draw out some of the issues involved in the development of the ENS and the lessons to be learnt.

Contribution oftrans‐18∶1 acids from dairy fat to european diets

AbstractTwelve commercial samples of French butter, purchased in October–November, and 12 other samples, purchased in May–June, were analyzed with particular attention to theirtrans‐octadecenoic acid contents. The isomeric fatty acids were quantitated by a combination of gas‐liquid chromatography (GLC) of total fatty acids as isopropyl esters on a polar capillary column (CPSil 88) and of silver nitrate‐impregnated thin‐layer chromatography followed by GLC of the pooled saturated (used as internal standards) andtrans‐octadecenoic acid fractions. Autumn butters contained 3.22±0.44%trans‐octadecenoic acids (relative to total fatty acids), whereas those collected during the spring contained 4.28±0.47% (P<0.01). Minimum and maximum values for the two sets of butters were 2.46 (autumn) and 5.10% (spring), respectively. The annual mean value for thetrans‐octadecenoic acid content in all butter samples was 3.8% of total fatty acids (ca. 2% for thetrans‐11 18∶1 acid). This value allows calculation of the daily individual intake oftrans‐octadecenoic acids from dairy products by populations of member states of the European Economic Community (EEC). It varies from 0.57 g (Portugal) to 1.66 g (Denmark). The mean value for the twelve countries of the EEC is 1.16 g/person/d, which is close to data published for the United States. In France, the consumption oftrans octadecenoic acids from dairy fat is higher than that from margarines (ca. 1.5 vs. 1.1 g/person/d).

Commercial Broadcasters in the Member States of the European Community: Their Impact on the Labour Market and Working Conditions

In five European countries (Germany, France, Belgium, Great Britain, Spain) the effects of commercial TV suppliers on the labour market and the conditions of work have been surveyed. Although new posts have been created by new stations, in the majority of the examined countries this greater number of jobs is threatened by growing competition in the television market. An increasing number of jobs are being transformed from employed to casual ones. The dissolution of the characteristics of traditional jobs and the development of multi-skilled work, especially the mixture of technical and editorial tasks in the responsibility of journalists, is reported.

Rendering systems and BSE agent deactivation

An experiment was designed to evaluate the ability of various rendering processes used in European Community (EC) Member States to deactivate the BSE or scrapie agent. Pilot scale rendering equipment was used to simulate processes that are currently being used within the EC. Additional processes that could be of use in the future were also evaluated. The selection of the different rendering systems and the process conditions, were the subject of exhaustive preliminary discussion involving government and industry representatives. The first experiment used brain material from cattle clinically suspected of having BSE. For each individual process, brain material was mixed with carcase, bones and offal, and this mix was then subjected to the appropriate test conditions. The aim of all test runs was to attain the target conditions set down in the experimental protocol. The experimental protocol defined appropriate parameters for the individual tests eg, raw material; fat ratio, particle size, temperature, time, and atmospheric pressure. Processed material was subsequently prepared into either meat and bone meal or animal fat (tallow). The samples are currently being tested for BSE infectivity using mouse bioassay. A second experiment is planned using brain material from British sheep with scrapie.

Electronic Data Interchange, Data Protection and the European Community: Implications for the Banking and Insurance Sectors

Banking and insurance sectors have witnessed an increased use of computers for transferring all types of information. There is no uniformity in the extent to which different Member States of the European Community (EC) protect a data subject's right to privacy. The EC has sought to harmonise the disparate laws while trying to maintain a balance between the free flow of information and the individual's right to privacy. This paper considers in brief some of the provisions put forward in the revised draft directive of the Council that are likely to affect the insurance and business industries.

The sprit of Stresa

The Stresa Conference of 1958, though it did not settle differences between the six original Member States of the European Economic Community, was regarded as significant at the time. This paper recalls the main issues then discussed, and reflects on the subsequent development of the Common Agricultural Policy. It suggests that the challenge of that time--integration among Western European countries--has its parallel today in the opening-up of Eastern Europe. Copyright 1994 by Oxford University Press.

EEC regulatory provisions for the release of transgenic plants

This paper outlines Directive 90/220/EEC of the European Economic Community, relating to the deliberate release of genetically modified organisms, and discusses the experience gained up to October 1993 in implementing this directive. The paper also summarizes the information required in notifications concerning releases of genetically modified higher plants in the member states of the European Community.

Recent public policies in The Netherlands to control pharmaceutical pricing and reimbursement.

In The Netherlands, the rate of consumption of medicine is low compared with that in other member states of the European Community. Nevertheless, expenditure on medicines is high in this country, because of a high price level. In the past decade, the cost of medicines has been growing more rapidly than the total expenditure on healthcare in The Netherlands. This prompted The Netherlands government to take action against the rise in the cost of medicines. Some policies were directed at the volume of consumption, but most focused on price. All had in common that they failed to produce lasting cost containment or did not stand up in court or to political debate. As a result, the measures proposed and implemented by the government have become increasingly harsh, departing from the Dutch tradition of harmonious policy-making carried out jointly by government and societal groups. The latest step has been the introduction (as of July 1, 1993) of a new version of a price reference system, which discourages the prescription of innovative but expensive drugs. It is too early to tell whether this policy will have a more enduring effect on cost than the previous measures.

Effets redistributifs de la politique agricole commune

Economic transfers due to the common agricultural policy This study focuses on the notion of real economic transfers between the member states of the European Community (analysis of the period 1974 to 1991 and prospective analysis for 1996 and 1999).

Ex Post Control of Insurance in Belgium

1. The context Private Insurance is on the move. Insurance markets, insurance undertakings, insurance distribution patterns, even insurance products are subject to various and profound changes. So is the regulatory framework. Member States of the European Economic Community are led to drastically change their supervisory legislation (see further on, sub No. 5) as well as their legal regulations concerning the distribution of insurance,1 concerning accounting of insurance undertakings,2 even concerning insurance contracts law.3

A Quiet Revolution

Although the governments of the member states of the European Community (EC) have always had a principal role in fashioning EC policies and norms, from the 1960s through the 1980s the European Court of Justice played a key role in imposing a compliance regime with these norms that has resembled in its structure and rigor the constitutional order of a federal state. To an extent unprecedented in other international organizations, states have found themselves locked into this regime and unable to enjoy the more common international legal compliance latitude. Interestingly, member state courts, legislatures, and governments seemed, by and large, to accept the new constitutional regime “imposed” by the European Court with a large measure of equanimity—a veritable “quiet revolution.” In this essay, the author restates the principal features of the new order and then explores the possible reasons that explain the acceptance and endorsements of the European Court by major constituencies in the member states. In the conclusion, the author hints at factors that bode a much rougher future relationship between the European Court and its national interlocutors.

Research methods for illegal drug use in hidden populations: summary report of a European invited expert meeting.

An Invited European Expert Group Meeting was held in Rotterdam that focused on research methods for hidden populations using illicit drugs. Experts from most European Community member states participated and contributed state-of-the-art presentations on various research methodologies. Attention was paid to the more quantitatively oriented research methods, such as surveys using questionnaires, interviews, and routine statistics from treatment and criminal justice as well as to more ethnographically oriented research methodologies. Recommendations were formulated for the near future: research methodology needs to meet all the classical methodological criteria, such as clear definitions, tests on reliability and validity, and clear sampling procedures. Interfacing methods is the key phrase. More quantitatively oriented methods, such as interviewing a random sample from a household survey, seem unsuitable for research on illicit drugs, except perhaps for the use of cannabis. A multifactorial problem, such as illicit drug use and related problems, should be approached in a multidisciplinary way; that is, the integration of different research methodologies. Comparability between individual research projects in different countries requires not only technical adjustments of the data, but also a "framework for communication." Data always need to be interpreted in terms of cultural context. A similar framework should enhance studies with respect to comparison of drug policies and their consequences in different cities or countries.