Melaleuca Cajuputi Research Articles

Effects of Gelam Honey (Melaleuca cajuputi) on Alveolar Bone Loss in Experimental Periodontitis

Gelam honey has been shown to exhibit antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities in animal model. The aim of this study was to determine the effects of Gelam honey (Melaleuca cajuputi) on alveolar bone level in experimental periodontitis. Thirty male Sprague-Dawley rats were used in this study and randomly divided into four groups: ligated saline (LS), ligated honey (LH), nonligated saline (NLS), and nonligated honey (NLH). Fifteen days after supplementation with Gelam honey (3 g/kg), the rats were sacrificed and alveolar bone level was determined by radiography and histomorphometry. The number of osteoclasts was also calculated for all groups. Both radiographic and histomorphometric analyses showed that alveolar bone resorption was severely induced around the ligated molar in the LS and LH groups. There was no significant difference in alveolar bone level between the LS and LH groups. However, there was a nonsignificant reduction of osteoclast number by 15.2% in LH group compared to LS group. In the NLH group, there was less alveolar bone resorption and the number of osteoclasts was reduced by 13.2% compared to NLS group. In conclusion, systemically supplemented Gelam honey was shown to have the potential of reducing osteoclast activity in the experimental periodontitis rats, even though the effect on alveolar bone level was not well demonstrated and it warrants further research.

Utilization of Solid Residue Melaleuca cajuputi Powell Leaves as Cattle Feed

4 Abstract: Distillation process of M. cajuputi Powell leaves to produce cajuput oil, yields a large amount of solid residue as waste materials. In vitro testing was conducted to evaluate the potential of solid residue of M. cajuputi Powell leaves as cattle feed. The measured variables were NH3, volatile fatty acids (VFA), Dry Matter Digestibility (DMD), and Organic Matter Digestibility (DMO). Completely randomized design was made with 5 different treatments and 4 replications, in order to get 20 experimental units. Data was analyzed by analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by Duncan's multiple range test with a significance level of 5%. The results showed that giving 100% of the solid residue of M. cajuputi Powell leaves produced VFA, DMD and DMO for about 102.25 mM, 59.75% and 42.28% respectively, but with lesser amount of NH3 (2.54mM). These results were significant (P < 0.05) and are higher than the results by using field grass. It can be concluded that the solid residue of M. cajuputi Powell leaves has the potential to be used as cattle feed.

In-vitro screening of Malaysian honey from different floral sources for antibacterial activity on human pathogenic bacteria.

Different researches on therapeutic effects of honey have been conducted in different regions; however the study on the potential antibacterial activity of Malaysian honey is still limited. In this study, antibacterial activities of different monofloral honey samples were tested against several common human pathogenic bacteria. The well-diffusion method, minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) techniques were employed to investigate the putative antibacterial activity of Malaysian monofloral honey from Koompassia excelsa (Becc.) Taub (Tualang), Melaleuca cajuputi Powell (Gelam) and Durio zibethinus Murr. (Durian). Honey samples were tested against Staphylococcus aureus ATCC6518 and ATCC25923, Staphylococcus epidermidis ATCC12228, Enterococcus faecium LMG16192, Enterococcus faecalis LMG16216 and ATCC29212, Escherichia coli ATCC25922, Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium ATCC14028 and Klebsiella pneumoniae ATCC13883. Marked variations were observed in the antibacterial activity of these honey samples. Durian honey failed to produce substantial antibacterial activity, whereas Tualang and Gelam honey showed a spectrum of antibacterial activity with their growth inhibitory effects against all of the tested bacterial species including vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE). Present findings suggested Gelam honey possesses highest antibacterial effect among the tested Malaysian honey samples.

The Potential of Gelam Leaves (Melaleuca cajuputi Powell) as Cattle Feed

Gelam putih (M. cajuputi Powell) in Central Kalimantan, has not been exploited well. In vitro test conducted to evaluate the potential of gelam leaves as cattle feed. The measured variables were NH3, volatile fatty acids (VFA), dry matter Digestibility (DMD) and organic matter Digestibility (DMO). Completely randomized design was made with 5 different treatments and 4 replications, in order to get 20 experimental units. Data were analyzed by analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Followed by Duncan's multiple range test with a significance level of 5%. The results showed that the giving 100% of gelam leaves produced NH3 dan VFA for about 4.01 and 151.25 mM, also DMD and DMO by 58.35 and 52.38%. These results were significant (p<0.05), higher than the grass field, so it can be concluded that the waste of gelam leaves, potentially be used as cattle feed.

Steady sucrose degradation is a prerequisite for tolerance to root hypoxia.

We investigated the role of glycolysis and sucrolysis in the difference in tolerance to root hypoxia between two Myrtaceae tree species, Melaleuca cajuputi (which shows superior tolerance to root hypoxia) and Eucalyptus camaldulensis (which does not). Analysis of the adenylate energy charge (AEC) in roots subjected to a 4-day hypoxic treatment (HT) in hydroponic culture revealed that the interspecies difference in tolerance corresponds to the ability to maintain energy status under root hypoxia: AEC was reduced by HT in E. camaldulensis, but not in M. cajuputi. The energy status in HT roots of E. camaldulensis was restored by feeding of glucose (Glc) but not sucrose (Suc). These data provide evidence that low substrate availability for glycolysis resulting from an impairment of sucrolysis suppresses ATP production under hypoxic conditions in this species. Measurements of the rates of O2 consumption and CO2 production in roots indicated that E. camaldulensis, but not M. cajuputi, failed to activate fermentation in HT roots. These results cannot be attributed to enzymatic dysfunction, because no inhibition of main glycolytic and fermentative enzymes was observed in both species, and Glc feeding had a beneficial effect on AEC of HT roots of E. camaldulensis. The impairment of sucrolysis was demonstrated by inhibited soluble acid invertase activity in HT roots of E. camaldulensis. In contrast, there was no inhibition in all sucrolytic enzymes tested in HT roots of M. cajuputi, suggesting that steady Suc degradation is essential for maintaining high energy status under root hypoxia. We conclude that root sucrolysis is one of the essential factors that determines the extent of tolerance to root hypoxia.

Estimation of Potential GHG Emission Reduction through Corresponded REDD Plus Activities in Remote Area in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia—Case Study in the Paduran Area

REDD plus activities corresponded in Central Kalimantan Province, Indonesia and their GHG emission reductions potential were analyzed. Target area is located in a remote area from Pa-langkaraya, Capital of Central Kalimantan Province and consisted of immigrating people mainly from Java Island. In the target area, most of local people conducted unsustainable land use activities (e.g. slash-and-burn agriculture). From analysis of past land use in the target area, there were drastic changes in land use from 1989 after migration began. Natural secondary forest with high density was greatly reduced (2010 levels are approximately 80% of 1996 levels) and converted to cropland and settlement. Also, the reduction in natural secondary forest with high density allowed Melaleuca cajuputi Powell forest to rapidly increase in size (2010 levels are approximately 3.7 times as 1996 levels). Additionally, as marked point, there was an increase in oil palm plantations from 2008 and onwards. From results of land use change in the past, mean annual GHG emissions of 5450 Gg CO2e year-1 had been continued until year 2010. To consider counter-measure for reducing GHG emissions in the target area, the relationship between past land use changes and human activities was analyzed through workshops with stakeholders of 6 different groups (village authorities, forest fire fighting team, members of farmers group, large landowners, workers outside of village and oil palm plantation and mother having small children). The results of the workshops showed that the core problem of unsustainable land use faced by 4 of the 6 groups of stakeholders was the lack of job opportunities (means to earn a living) in the target area. Also, it was learned that core groups considered oil palm plantations is to alleviate the problem and provide a source of alternative income. Furthermore, the workshops indicated that future land use scenario (reference scenario) will be based on income from oil palm plantations and, to prevent such land conversion, counter-measures (REDD plus project scenario) of indirect activities of local people’s lifestyle improvement (e.g. A new forestry system which uses abundant resources of M. cajuputi forest) and reducing pressures on forest resources should be introduced. This study indicated, by implementing REDD plus project in the target area, potential reduction in GHG emissions is quite large and such GHG reduction will be essential as mitigation activities under the new mitigation mechanism, the Joint Crediting Mechanism (JCM) between Indonesia and Japan.

ASSESSMENT OF &lt;I&gt;MELALEUCA CAJUPUTI&lt;/I&gt; AS HEAVY METALS PHYTOREMEDIATOR FOR SEWAGE SLUDGE CONTAMINATED SOIL

In 2011, total marine capture landings in Peninsular Malaysia decreased by 3.9% which amounted to 1,373,105 tonnes as compared to 1,428,881 tonnes in 2010. The decline is connected to marine pollution which mainly comes from land based sources. Coastal forests play an important role affecting the marine ecosystem health and need to be conserved as a buffer to minimize pollution input into marine ecosystem. Heath forest, a type of coastal forest that receives less attention compared to mangroves, also has similar role. Melaleuca cajuputi that dominates heath forest has high potential as a phytoremediator of heavy metals and also has high economic values. A greenhouse experiment was conducted to evaluate the potential of this species to extract heavy metals namely Zn and Cd from soil. Four levels of treatment were prepared where the test media was mixed with different amounts of sewage sludge (v/v) namely; T1 (control-soil only), T2 (30% sludge +70% soil), T3 (50% sludge + 50% soil) and T4 (70% sludge + 30% soil). After 90 days of experimental period, the accumulation of Zn was found to be high in the roots (137.19 mg kg-1), followed by the leaves (135.0 mg kg-1) and stems (102.24 mg kg-1). As for Cd the highest concentration was in the roots (2.05 mg kg-1), stems (1.78 mg kg-1) and leaves (1.66 mg kg-1). The species Transfer Factor (TF) values in the greenhouse experiment were > 1 but the Bio-Concentration Factor (BCF) values are≤ 1. This result shows that M. cajuputi is tolerant to Zn and Cd toxicity (low BCF) but able to transfer these elements (high TF) to the shoots for removal by leaf fall or by harvesting the shoots. In addition, the accumulation of Zn and Cd were high in the roots which suggests that Zn and Cd were efficiently immobilized (in the roots) from entering the marine ecosystem.

Toxicity and antitermite activity of the essential oils from Cinnamomum camphora, Cymbopogon nardus, Melaleuca cajuputi and Dipterocarpus sp. against Coptotermes curvignathus

Efficacy of four different essential oils against the subterranean termite, Coptotermes curvignathus Holmgren, was assessed in various bioassays. Laboratory results indicate that the highest termite mortality was found in Dipterocarpus sp. essential oil after 24 h (LC50 = 1.62 %) and the lowest in Melaleuca cajuputi (LC50 = 4.60 %). The wood consumption in the filter paper treated with Dipterocarpus sp. oil is also smaller than for the other three essential oils tested. However, the other three essential oils also inhibited termite susceptibility of the specimens. Dipterocarpus sp. (keruing oil) was the most effective insect antifeedant and repellent against C. curvignathus. The results suggest that essential oils might have some beneficial activity of economic value and are considered good candidates for the development of new chemicals (repellents or antifeedants) for termite control.

Estimasi parameter genetik dan peran gen pada uji keturunan full sib kayu putih di Gunung Kidul

Controlled pollination technique could be applied to generate gene recombinant from families in progeny test and to estimate genetic parameters. The early step in evaluation of controlled pollination is to estimate general combining ability and specific combining ability. the objectives of this research were to estimate generic parameters on full sib progeny test of melaleuca cajuputi subsp cajuputi cajuput and to identify gene action controlling growth and oil traits. The research was conducted on full sib progeny test at Gunungkidul established in an incomplete block Design with six treeplots and eight replications. Tree height and diameter stem growth were observed at seven years old. Oil yield and cineol content were examined using gas chromatography. Analysis of variance and genetic parameter were calculated for all measured variables. The result showed that individual heretabilities on growth traits (hi2 of stem diameter = 0,34 and tree height = 0,01, respectively) were lower than on oil traiths (hi2 of oil yield =0,6 and cineole = 0,4 respectively). This indicated that oil traits tend to genetically controlled. Analysis of variances on general combining ability (GCA) and Specific Combining Ability (SCA) effects from a serries of 15 sets of 5x5 half-diallel mating experiments showed that all traits (height, diameter, oil and 1,8 cineole yields) were controlled by non-aditive genes. Consequently, controlled pollination of selected plus trees should be carried out until heterosis of improved progenies could be found.

Analisis Vegetasi Pada Habitat Gajah Sumatera Di Suaka Margasatwa Padang Sugihan Provinsi Sumatera Selatan

Padang Sugihan Wildlife Reserve covering 86,932 hectares is the natural habitat of elephants in South Sumatra, both wild and managed elephants at Elephant Training Center, Sub Padang Sugihan. This area was used to be production forest. To support life of wild elephants, the vegetation quantity and diversity of vegetation types of feed must be known. This study aimed to analyze the vegetation feed elephants in Padang Sugihan Wildlife Reserve. The method used sampling plots with a size of 1m x 1m and 5m x 5m in five study sites. Data were analyzed using analysis of vegetation to get the importance value index. Species diversity was calculated using the Shannon Wienner Index formula. It was also calculated the value of uniformity of plant based on Simpson formula. The results of importance value index showed that location I was dominated by Echinochloa colonum (L.) Link (76.55%), location II Panicum astagninum R (132.48%), location III Panicum repens L (107.14%), location IV Axonopus caompressus ( 79.48%), location of V Panicum repens L and Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. (21.28%), location VI Melaleuca cajuputi (80.77%), and location VII Melaleuca cajuputi (84.08%). The value of the highest species diversity in the location of V at 2.53. The lowest value was in location II at 0.66. The highest uniformity index was 0.92. While the lowest value was 0.37 in the location II. Based on the above results it is necessary to enrich the vegetation species of elephant grass and natural food, especially at locations II and III. Keyword: Padang Sugihan Wildlife Reserve, vegetation analysis, Elephas maximus sumateranus Temminck

Biomass Distribution of Cajuput Stand in Central Kalimantan Swamp Forest

In Central Kalimantan, cajuput (Melaleuca cajuputi subsp. cumingiana) mostly can be found in the riptide swamp area. The present research was intended to determine the distribution of biomass based on the part of tree, position to the ground surface, growing stage, and allometric equation models to estimate the prospective of biomass in 2 different locations (A and B). The A and B locations were characterized by type B riptide peat swamp forest (high tide effected with peat thickness of 51-100 cm) and type C riptide peat swamp forest (tide unaffected shallow soil of < 50 cm with peat thickness of 101-200 cm), respectively. The distribution of cajuput biomass based on the part of tree, position to the ground surface, and growing stage in both locations indicated a similar pattern. Stem contained the highest biomass followed successively by that of root, branch, leave, fruit, and flower. Biomass above the ground was also higher than that of below the ground. Furthermore, biomass content of poles was the highest, followed successively by that of sapling, tree, and seedling. Allometric equation models used to estimate biomass of the A location in the state of green, air dry, and oven dry were 0.335D2,35, 0.143D2,42, and 0.128D2,41, respectively. While those in the B location for green, air dry, and oven dry state were 0.279D2,48, 0.127D2,58, and 0.114D2,56, respectively. The potential of biomass in the A and B location were 144,100 and 127,212 ton ha-1, respectively.

GROWTH PERFORMANCE, BIOMASS AND PHYTOEXTRACTION EFFICIENCY OF &lt;i&gt;ACACIA MANGIUM&lt;/i&gt; AND &lt;i&gt;MELALEUCA CAJUPUTI&lt;/i&gt; IN REMEDIATING HEAVY METAL CONTAMINATED SOIL

Heavy metals are very toxic and soil contaminated with sewage sludge urgently need remediation in order to avoid related health hazards. Phytoremediation is a low cost and reliable technique to remediate heavy metal contamination. However phytoremediation using timber species was rarely reported and its efficiency was questionable. A field study was conducted to examine the efficiency of two timber species namely Acacia mangium and Melaleuca cajuputi in phytoextraction of Zn, Cu and Cd from contaminated soil. Two hundred of A. mangium and M. cajuputi were planted on sewage sludge disposal site and the growth was recorded for 12 months before at the end total biomass of each species was determined. Results show in 12 months, about 72 and 4 t ha-1 of aboveground biomass can be produced by A. mangium and M. cajuputi, respectively. Both species show potential for phytoremediation, however A. mangium is more efficient compared to M. cajuputi where efficiency of A. mangium to remove Zn was 24.4, 6.2 for Cu and 9.5% for Cd. As for M. cajuputi the efficiency was 1.3, 0.3 and 0.14% for Zn, Cu and Cd, respectively. It is projected that A. mangium require 5, 17 and 20 years to remove 79.82 kg ha-1 of Zn, 46.94 kg ha-1 of Cu and 2.33 kg ha-1 of Cd, respectively.

Variation of Seed Production and Viability in a Full-Sib Trial of Melaleuca cajuputi sub sp. cajuputi in Gunungkidul Yogyakarta

Family variation of capsule production and the seed viability in the Paliyan full-sib trial of Melaleuca cajuputi subsp. cajuputi , at Gunungkidul, Yogyakarta, were observed. The full-sib trial was designed as Incomplete Block Design, consisting of 39 families; six individual as tree plot and replicated in eight blocks. Height and diameter at breast height were assessed to identify the correlation between capsule category and growth performance. The capsule production was assessed visually to one of the capsule categories: “0” for none; “1” for light; “2” for medium and “3” for heavy. Results showed that each family of M. cajuputi sub sp. c ajuputi equally contributed to the seed production. Progeny analysis showed that the seed productions were not strongly under genetic control (h2i) = 0.12. This study also found positive correlation between the flowering strength (the flower production levels) and the number of capsule (R 2 =0.279). However, there were no significant differences between the flowering levels and the viability of M. cajuputi sub sp. cajuputi . Mean seed viability was 31%, there were no significantly differences of capsules production between trees having high flowering intensity and low flowering intensity. Low seed viability was assumed due to the unsynchronicity of flowering, leading to the low levels of outcrossing rate. Therefore, selection of families with synchronicity of flowering was recommended to establish a seed orchard.

THE SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF &lt;i&gt;APIS DORSATA&lt;/i&gt; HOST PLANTS USING AN INTEGRATED GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM-REMOTE SENSING APPROACH

Apis dorsata is one of the important honeybee species in tropical and subtropical regions that forages on various plants including herbs, grasses, forest trees and plantation trees. However, information on the spatial distribution of various pollen sources of Apis dorsata is still lacking. This study aimed at mapping the spatial distribution of the major honeybee plants that serve as pollen sources to Apis dorsata using an integrated Geographical Information System (GIS)-Remote Sensing (RS) approach. Mapping of pollen sources was based on SPOT-5 satellite imagery within a GIS environment. The SPOT-5 imagery was enhanced, classified and vectorized using ENVI 4.7. Image classification techniques were used to separate the pollen sources into six classes. Ten observation plots, each measuring 10×10 m, were established for each pollen source class using a randomized sampling technique. Results showed that Melaleuca cajuputi covered a total of 2,398.8 ha (5.5%), Acacia sp. 11,377.8 ha (25.9%), Elaeis guineensis 19745.1 ha (44.9%), non-vegetation 4,647.2 ha (10.6%), water bodies 973.5 ha (2.2%) and cloud/haze/shadow 4830.5 ha (10.6%). The overall classification accuracy was 91.5% and the Kappa coefficient was 0.8. The GIS-RS map showed that almost all of the Apis dorsata nesting sites were located in the Elaeis guineensis area. This study clearly demonstrates that Apis dorsata prefers to build its nest in close proximity to the pollen source.

A new chromone from the leaves of Melaleuca cajuputi Powell

A new chromone, 5,7-dihydroxy-2 -(hydroxymethyl)-6,8-dimethyl-chromen-4-one, named melachromone, together with 12 known compounds, including chromones, anthraquinone, flavonoids, flavonoid glycosides, benzene derivatives, ellagic acids and terpenes, were isolated from the leaves of Melaleuca cajuputi Powell. Their structures were characterised by spectroscopic methods.

Morphological and anatomical changes of Melaleuca cajuputi under submergence

Melaleuca cajuputi is a woody plant of the Myrtaceae which is a dominant species in tropical peat swamps in southern Thailand, where the groundwater level fluctuates greatly. Although the current year seedlings are likely submerged, their adaptive responses have never been studied. The objective of the present study was to examine their responses to submergence, and especially their morphological and anatomical changes. Not only did the seedlings of M. cajuputi survive submergence for 56 days, but they could also increase their dry weight, shoot length, and leaf number during submergence. These growth responses to submergence indicate that the seedlings of M. cajuputi could make photosynthetic production under water. The leaves that developed under water were heterophyllous “aquatic leaves” that appear to represent adaptations to improve the uptake of gases from the water. Intercellular spaces in the stems and leaves were more strongly developed in the submerged seedlings than in non-submerged seedlings with the shoot and leaves in the air. The intercellular spaces appear to be schizogenous aerenchyma that facilitates gas exchange. The growth responses and anatomical responses in stems and leaves to submergence, which were found in M. cajuputi, are commonly known in herbaceous plants with amphibious characteristics, but had not been reported in woody plants. And our results suggest that M. cajuputi adapts to submergence similarly to other amphibious plants, thereby ensuring continuing biomass production.

Extraction of Melaleuca cajuputi Using Supercritic Fluid Extraction and Solvent Extraction

Extracts of Melaleuca cajuputi were obtained by supercritical (carbon dioxide) extraction and solvent (hexane) extraction methods. This work is aimed at adapting the green technology of using supercritical CO2 (SC-CO2) as solvent in a batch process to extract Melaleuca cajuputi leaves. The plant leaves were collected from Trengganu, Malaysia. Cajuputi extract analyses were performed by GC and GC/MS. The maximum yields obtained were 4.2% and 6.0%, respectively, by supercritical fluid (SFE) and solvent extraction (SE). Several compounds were identified and significant qualitative and quantitative differences were observed under different conditions. The major components of Cajuputi oil consisted of sesquiterpenes (δ-elemene, β-elemene, β-caryophyllene, α-humulene, 9-epi-β-caryophyllene), their oxygenated derivatives (viridiflorol, platyphyllol, β-eudesmol, bulnesol, (Z,Z)-farnesol and (E,E)-farnesal) and polyphenolic ketones (isoeugenitine and three unknown compounds).

Predict Location(s) of &lt;i&gt;Apis dorsata&lt;/i&gt; Nesting Sites Using Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System in Melaleuca Foresti

Problem statement: The Asiatic Giant honeybees (Apis dorsata) are seasonally abounded throughout the upland and lowland rainforests in South East Asia. The colonies of A. dorsata are found to nest in aggregates on tall bee trees (tree emergent) in the open, as well as, nesting singly in concealed locations when nesting low, especially in the submerged forest of Melaleuca cajuputi as in the vast hectare of Melaleuca forest along the coastal areas of Terengganu. The trunk and branches of the Melaleuca trees are almost upright and the bark are papery and loose that it is unsuitable to serve as nesting support for A. dorsata. Therefore, other trees with sloping branches in the vicinity of the Melaleuca forest are chosen as nesting supports for the A. dorsata colonies. Melaleuca cajuputi and Acacia auriculiformis trees are major sources of nectar and pollen for A. dorsata. Approach: A pilot study were conducted to determine the vegetation distribution area of Melaleuca cajuputi and Acacia auriculiformis, colony distribution and density Apis dorsata colonies using the remote-sensing and field survey by GPS hand held in the submerged Melaleuca forest around the village of Gong Beris, Marang district, Terengganu (Upper left 5°2’19.223”N, 103°10’4.092”E and lower down 4°53’42.31”N, 103°22’37.90”E). Result: Based on the map and field survey, it is clear that almost all Apis dorsata nesting sites were located in the Acacia auriculiformis areas Melaleuca cajuputi is mostly using by Apis dorsata as source of nectar and pollen in Marang district, Malaysia Conclusion: The outcome on the distribution area and feral colonies nesting sites will be used to propose the locating of possible A. dorsata nesting sites and understand better nesting behavior of Apis dorsata to improvement searching ability for honey hunters in Marang district.

Kualitas Arang Aktif Kayu Gelam dan Aplikasinya untuk Meningkatkan Kualitas Air (Activated Charcoal Quality of Gelam Wood and Its Application to Improve Water Quality)

Gelam (Melaleuca cajuputi) is the dominant tree species grown in swamp forests, especially in tidal areas in Central Kalimantan. Gelam wood has been used for construction and biomass energy, which is due to high density of wood. Previously studies reported that the quality of charcoal from wood stems of Gelam was better than that from roots, fruits, flowers, branches and leaves. The study was to investigate the characteristics of activated charcoal from wood stem of gelam which taken from different site and growth stages of the tree, and its utilizations for water quality improvement. The parameters observed were yield, moisture content, volatile matter content, ash content, fixed carbon, absorption of benzene, iodine and methylene blue. The Gelam wood from different growth site and stage of trees (saplings, poles, trees) can be used as raw material for activated charcoal production. The quality of activated charcoal fulfilled the quality requirements of technical activated charcoal (SNI 06-3730-1995), activated charcoal for the purification of edible oil (SNI 06-4262-1996) and drinking water (SNI 06-4253-1996), except for absorption of benzene. Generally, the quality of water treated by activated charcoal increased and fulfilled the requirements of clean water standards (Departemen Kesehatan 1990).

Provenance variation in tolerance of Melaleuca cajuputi trees to interactive effects of aluminum and salt

A future rise in sea level will expand areas of salt-affected acid sulfate soil, calling for studies on plant tolerance to combined aluminum (Al) and salt (NaCl) stress. We investigated random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) profiles and tolerance to Al and NaCl alone and in combination in 14 Melaleuca cajuputi Powell provenances. Two-month-old seedlings were grown with or without 10 mM Al and/or 50 mM NaCl at pH 3.8 for 3 months. Plant growth was reduced mostly by combined Al and NaCl stress and then by NaCl and least by Al. Moreover, Al enhanced the effect of NaCl on growth and vice versa. There were significant differences in plant growth among provenances under all treatments; however, positive relationships were found among Al tolerance, NaCl tolerance, and combined Al and NaCl tolerance. Provenance variation in stress tolerance increases with the increasing levels of stress effect. Furthermore, NaCl tolerance tended to have a positive relationship with osmotic potential. Leaf sap K concentration was decreased by NaCl and increased by Al; however, provenances that were more tolerant to NaCl tended to have lower K concentrations. RAPD analysis also revealed genetic variation among provenances. These results suggest that the low tolerance to combined Al and NaCl stress in M. cajuputi is largely due to low tolerance to NaCl and the effect of interaction between Al and NaCl. Provenance variation in stress tolerance was significant and could be partly explained by the variation in genetic material and the ability of plants to reduce ion excess stress in their shoots.