Deuterium Measurements Research Articles

Split Majoron model confronts the NANOGrav signal and cosmological tensions

In the light of the evidence of a gravitational wave background from the NANOGrav 15 yr dataset, we reconsider the split Majoron model as a new physics extension of the standard model able to generate a needed contribution to solve the current tension between the data and the standard interpretation in terms of inspiraling supermassive black hole massive binaries. In the split Majoron model the seesaw right-handed neutrinos acquire Majorana masses from spontaneous symmetry breaking of global U(1)B−L in a strong first order phase transition of a complex scalar field occurring above the electroweak scale. The final vacuum expectation value couples to a second complex scalar field undergoing a low scale phase transition occurring after neutrino decoupling. Such a coupling enhances the strength of this second low scale first order phase transition and can generate a sizeable primordial gravitational wave background contributing to the NANOGrav 15 yr signal. Some amount of extraradiation is generated after neutron-to-proton ration freeze-out but prior to nucleosynthesis. This can be either made compatible with the current upper bound from primordial deuterium measurements or even be used to solve a potential deuterium problem. Moreover, the free streaming length of light neutrinos can be suppressed by their interactions with the resulting Majoron background, and this mildly ameliorates existing cosmological tensions. Thus cosmological observations nicely provide independent motivations for the model. Published by the American Physical Society 2024

Single-cell measurement of microbial growth rate with Raman microspectroscopy.

Rates of microbial growth are fundamental to understanding environmental geochemistry and ecology. However, measuring the heterogeneity of microbial activity at the single-cell level, especially within complex populations and environmental matrices, remains a forefront challenge. Stable isotope probing (SIP) is a method for assessing microbial growth and involves measuring the incorporation of an isotopic label into microbial biomass. Here, we assess Raman microspectroscopy as a SIP technique, specifically focusing on the measurement of deuterium (2H), a tracer of microbial biomass production. We correlatively measured cells grown in varying concentrations of deuterated water with both Raman spectroscopy and nanoscale secondary ion mass spectrometry (nanoSIMS), generating isotopic calibrations of microbial 2H. Relative to Raman, we find that nanoSIMS measurements of 2H are subject to substantial dilution due to rapid exchange of H during sample washing. We apply our Raman-derived calibration to a numerical model of microbial growth, explicitly parameterizing the factors controlling growth rate quantification and demonstrating that Raman-SIP can sensitively measure the growth of microorganisms with doubling times ranging from hours to years. The measurement of single-cell growth with Raman spectroscopy, a rapid, nondestructive technique, represents an important step toward application of single-cell analysis into complex sample matrices or cellular assemblages.

A scintillating-fiber detector for making high-time-resolution secondary D-T neutron measurements in KSTAR.

A scintillating fiber (Sci-Fi) detector for the middle neutron flux range was installed in KSTAR as part of a collaboration between the National Institute for Fusion Science and the Korea Institute of Fusion Energy. The detector could make relatively high-time-resolution measurements of secondary deuterium (D)-tritium (T) neutron fluxes to investigate the degradation of D-D-born triton confinement, which is crucial for demonstrating alpha particle confinement, particularly above 0.9 MA in KSTAR. The pulse-height spectrum of the Sci-Fi detector exhibited two peaks, the higher of which corresponded to D-T neutrons. A discrimination technique was applied to extract the D-T neutron signal, revealing the time evolution of the D-T neutron flux during relatively high plasma current discharges with a 50ms temporal resolution. Future research will involve investigating the causes of the degradation of the triton burnup ratio above 0.9 MA in KSTAR.

Fusion neutron diagnostics with CVD diamond detectors

The measurement of Deuterium–Deuterium (DD) and Deuterium–Tritium (DT)-fusion neutrons is crucial for plasma diagnostics at nuclear fusion facilities, such as ITER. Elevated temperatures and high radiation levels challenge radiation detectors. Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD) diamond withstands harsh environments and is a distinguished candidate for reliable plasma instrumentation (Angelone et al., 2021 and Passeri et al., 2021). Neutron-induced nuclear reactions on Carbon nuclei of diamond substrates are the basis for fusion neutron detection with CVD diamond detectors. DD-fusion neutrons have an energy of 2.45 MeV. The corresponding response function of diamond sensors is purely elastic scattering and has a characteristic shape. DT-fusion neutrons have 14.1 MeV kinetic energy, and their response function reveals different nuclear reactions. The 12C(n, α)9Be peak is the most prominent structure in this response function. The principles of neutron diagnostics with CVD diamond detectors are discussed in this paper and the measured response functions of diamond sensors for 2.45 MeV and 14.1 MeV neutrons are presented, as well as the fusion neutron measurement using a proton-recoil telescope.

Characterization of the SIDDHARTA-2 Setup via the Kaonic Helium Measurement

The aim of the SIDDHARTA-2 experiment is to perform the first measurement ever of the width and shift induced by the strong interaction to the 2p→1s energy transition of kaonic deuterium. This ambitious goal implies a challenging task due to the very low X-ray yield of kaonic deuterium, which is why an accurate and thorough characterization of the experimental apparatus is mandatory before starting the data-taking campaign. Helium-4 is an excellent candidate for this characterization since it exhibits a high yield in particular for the 3d→2p transition, roughly 100 times greater than that of the kaonic deuterium. The ultimate goal of the work reported in this paper is to study the performances of the full experimental setup in view of the kaonic deuterium measurement. This is carried out by measuring the values of the shift and the width for the 3d→2p energy transition of kaonic helium-4, induced by the strong interaction. The values obtained for these quantities, for a total integrated luminosity of ∼31/pb, are ε2p=2.0±1.2(stat)±1.5(syst)eV and Γ2p=1.9±5.7(stat)±0.7(syst)eV. The results, compared to the value of the shift measured by the SIDDHARTA experiment ε2p=0±6(stat)±2(syst)eV, show a net enhancement of the resolution of the apparatus, providing strong evidence of the potential to perform the challenging measurement of the kaonic deuterium.

A new precise determination of the primordial abundance of deuterium: measurement in the metal-poor sub-DLA system at z = 3.42 towards quasar J 1332+0052

ABSTRACT The theory of Big Bang nucleosynthesis, coupled with an estimate of the primordial deuterium abundance (D/H)pr, offers insights into the baryon density of the Universe. Independently, the baryon density can be constrained during a different cosmological era through the analysis of cosmic microwave background anisotropy. The comparison of these estimates serves as a rigorous test for the self-consistency of the standard cosmological model and stands as a potent tool in the quest for new physics beyond the standard model of particle physics. For a meaningful comparison, a clear understanding of the various systematic errors affecting deuterium measurements is crucial. Given the limited number of D/H measurements, each new estimate carries significant weight. This study presents the detection of D i absorption lines in a metal-poor sub-Damped Lyman-α system ($\rm [O/H]=-1.71\pm 0.02$, log N(H i) = 19.304 ± 0.004) at zabs = 3.42 towards the quasar SDSS J133254.51+005250.6. Through simultaneous fitting of H i and D i Lyman-series lines, as well as low-ionization metal lines, observed at high spectral resolution and high signal-to-noise using VLT/UVES and Keck/HIRES, we derive log (D i/H i) = −4.622 ± 0.014, accounting for statistical and systematic uncertainties of 0.008dex and 0.012 dex, respectively. Thanks to negligible ionization corrections and minimal deuterium astration at low metallicity, this D/H ratio provides a robust measurement of the primordial deuterium abundance, consistent and competitive with previous works. Incorporating all prior measurements, the best estimate of the primordial deuterium abundance is constrained as: (D/H)pr = (2.533 ± 0.024) × 10−5. This represents a 5 per cent improvement in precision over previous studies and reveals a moderate tension with the expectation from the standard model (≈2.2σ). This discrepancy underscores the importance of further measurements in the pursuit of new physics.

Kaonic atoms with SIDDHARTA-2 at the DAΦNE collider

The most important information still missing in the field of the low-energy antikaon-nucleon inter actions studies is the experimental determination of the hadronic energy shift and width of kaonic deuterium. This measurement will be performed by the SIDDHARTA-2 experiment, installed at the DAΦNE collider and presently in data taking campaign. The precise measurement of the shift and width of the 1s level with respect to the purely electromagnetic calculated values, generated by the presence of the strong interaction, through the measurement of the X-ray transitions to this level, in kaonic hydrogen, was performed by the SIDDHARTA collaboration, the kaonic deuterium is underway by SIDDHARTA-2. These measurement will allow the first precise experimental extraction of the isospin dependent antikaon-nucleon scattering lengths, funda mental quantities for understanding low-energy QCD in the strangeness sector. The experimental challenge of the kaonic deuterium measurement is the very small X-rays yield, the even larger width (compared to kaonic hy drogen), and the difficulty to perform X-rays spectroscopy with weak signals in the high radiation environment of DAΦNE. It was, therefore, crucial to develop a new apparatus involving large-area X-rays detector system, to optimize the signal and to control and by improve the signal-to-background ratio by gaining in solid angle, increasing the timing capability, and as well implementing additional charge particle tracking veto systems.

CdZnTe detectors tested at the [formula omitted] collider for future kaonic atoms measurements

The SIDDHARTA-2 collaboration at the INFN Laboratories of Frascati (LNF) aims to perform important measurements on kaonic atoms. In parallel to the groundbreaking kaonic deuterium measurement, presently running on the DAΦNE collider at LNF, we plan to install additional detectors. The aim is to perform further kaonic atoms’ studies, taking advantage of the unique low energy and low momentum spread K− beam delivered by the at-rest decay of the ϕ meson.CdZnTe devices are ideal for detecting transitions toward both the upper and lower levels of intermediate-mass kaonic atoms, like kaonic carbon and aluminium. Measuring these transitions can have an important impact on the strangeness sector of nuclear physics.We present the results obtained in two preliminary tests conducted at DAΦNE in view of measurements foreseen in 2024, with the twofold aim to tune the timing window required to reject the extremely high electromagnetic background, and to quantify the readout saturation effect due to the high rate when placed close to the Interaction Region (IR). In the first test we used a RITEC device and electronics, while for the second one commercial REDLEN detectors were coupled to a frontend electronics customized at the University of Palermo.The results confirmed the possibility of finding and matching a proper timing window to identify the signal events and proved the better performance in terms of energy resolution of the REDLEN technology with a custom frontend electronics. In both cases, strong saturation effects were confirmed, accounting for a loss of almost 90% of the events, which will be overcome by a dedicated shielding structure foreseen for the final experimental setup.

Non-standard cosmic expansion histories: neutrino decoupling and primordial nucleosynthesis signatures

Cosmological scenarios with a non-standard equation of state can involve ultrastiff fluids, understood as primordial fluids for which p/ρ > 1. Their energy densities can dominate the Universe energy budget at early times, in the otherwise radiation dominated epoch. During that period the Universe undergoes a faster expansion, that has implications for any decoupling process that takes place in that era. Quintessence models or Ekpyrotic cosmologies are good examples of such scenarios. Assuming the ultrastiff state to be thermally decoupled at very early times, if ever coupled, its observational imprints are left solely in the Universe expansion rate and in the radiation energy density. We consider a complete set of ultrastiff fluids and study their signatures in the neutrino decoupling and BBN eras. Measurements of N eff alone place mild constraints on these scenarios, with forthcoming measurements from the Simons Observatory in the Chilean Atacama desert being able to test regions where still sizable effects are observable. However, when BBN data is taken into account, those regions are proven to be barely reconcilable with primordial helium-4 and deuterium abundances measurements. Our findings show that measurements of the primordial helium-4 abundance imply the tightest constraints, with measurements of primordial deuterium being — to a certain extent — competitive as well. We point out that a ∼ 60% improvement on the statistical uncertainty of the primordial helium-4 abundance measurement, will test these scenarios in the region where they can produce sizable effects. Beyond that precision the regions that are accessible degenerate with standard expectations. In that case, although potentially present, neither neutrino decoupling nor BBN observables will be sensitive probes.

Measurements of fusion reaction history in inertially confined burning plasmas

Direct evidence of inertially confined fusion ignition appears in the abrupt temperature increase and consequent rapid increase in the thermonuclear burn rate as seen in the reaction history. The Gamma Reaction History (GRH) and Gas Cherenkov Detector (GCD) diagnostics are γ-based Cherenkov detectors that provide high quality measurements of deuterium–tritium fusion γ ray production and are, thus, capable of monitoring the thermonuclear burn rate. Temporal shifts in both peak burn time and burn width have been observed during recent high-yield shots (yields greater than 1017 neutrons) and are essential diagnostic signatures of the ignition process. While the current GRH and GCD detectors are fast enough to sense the changes of reaction history due to alpha heating, they do not have enough dynamic range to capture the onset of alpha heating. The next generation of instrumentation, GRH-15m, is proposed to increase the yield-rate coverage to measure the onset of alpha-heating.

Comparative study on salinity removal methods: an evaluation-based stable isotopes signatures in ground and sea water

This research aims to attain the optimal method of removing the high salinity concentrations without its effect on the balance or accuracy of stable isotopes measurement of deuterium and oxygen-18 (δ18O, δ2H). Four treatment methods (i.e., distillation, vacuum distillation, electro dialysis and ion exchange) were applied for nine samples, which were obtained from different water sources (sea, groundwater, river).l Worth to notice that the samples have Electrical Conductivity (EC) ranged (1000–60,000 µs/cm). Liquid–Water Isotope Analyzer used to measure the isotope concentration of δ18O, δ2H. The research findings of the four applied methods revealed their effectiveness with various percentages (normal distillation: 92.37%; vacuum distillation: 88.31%; electro dialysis: 94.85%; ion exchange: 99.62%). In addition, the investigation was conducted a clear correspondence measurement of (δ18O, δ2H) isotopes before and after treatment. The four methods results indicated that samples with EC ranged (1000–5000 µs/cm) have no effect on stable isotope readings. Whereas, samples with EC higher than 10,000, have substantial influence on the stable isotope readings. Finally, vacuum distillation method attained the best results among the treatment methods for EC ranged (10,000–60,000 µs/cm) without affecting the isotopic content of (δ18O, δ2H). There is a clear correspondence of the stable isotopic measurements before and after treatment, for all the selected samples.

Kaonic atoms measurements with SIDDHARTA-2

The SIDDHARTA-2 collaboration is aiming to perform the challenging measurement of kaonic deuterium X-ray transitions to the ground state. This will allow to extract the isospin-dependent antikaon-nucleon scattering lengths, providing input to the theory of Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD) in the non-perturbative regime with strangeness. This work describes the SIDDHARTA-2 experimental apparatus and presents the results obtained during the commissioning phase realized with kaonic helium measurements. In particular, the first observation of the kaonic helium transitions to the 3s level (M-lines), reported in this work, represents a new source of information to study the kaonic helium cascade process and demonstrates the potential of the SIDDHARTA-2 apparatus, in the view of the ambitious kaonic deuterium measurement.

Iridium-Catalyzed Branch-Selective Hydroalkylation of Simple Alkenes with Malonic Amides and Malonic Esters

We report the iridium-catalyzed branch-selective hydroalkylation of simple alkenes such as aliphatic alkenes and aromatic alkenes with malonic amides and malonic esters under neutral reaction conditions. A variety of aliphatic alkenes and aromatic alkenes bearing bromine, chlorine, ester, 2-thienylcarboxylate, silyl, and phthalimide groups were all found to be suitable for this hydroalkylation. The combination of this method with Krapcho dealkoxycarbonylation realized a one-pot synthesis of β-substituted amide and ester from β-amide ester and malonic ester. The hydroalkylated products derived from malonic amides are suitable for further transformation. The finely tuned reaction conditions realized the selective transformation of hydroalkylated products to 1,3-diamines or monoamides with the same reagent. Deuterium labeling experiments and measurement of the kinetic isotope effect indicated that the catalytic cycle involves a reversible step and cleavage of the C-H bond is not a rate-determining step. Density functional theory calculations provided insight into the reaction mechanism, where the carboiridation step is followed by C-H reductive elimination.

GEOLOGICAL STUDY ABOUT THE HYDROMINERAL AND GEOTHERMAL DEPOSIT CĂLIMĂNEŞTI-CĂCIULATA

This paper presents a geological study in the Călimăneşti-Căciulata area regarding mineral and geothermal waters. The detailed geological map at a scale of 1: 50000, made on the basis of detailed geological maps, is the starting material in this study. The types of water sources targeted are mineral springs, boreholes and surface water in the area. The database includes both geological and tectonic elements, as well as measurements of deuterium (δD (‰)) and overall salt content (∆d (mg/l)) expressed as the difference in density between a distilled water taken as a standard and water sample. In the case of surface water, due to the evaporation produced during the summer months which results in an enrichment in both deuterium and salts, there is a positive correlation between the values δD and Δd. If there are relationships with groundwater, correlation coefficients are low or even negative. For different water sources in the Călimănești-Căciulata area (average values), there is a good correlation between the deuterium concentration values and the global salt content. Regarding the seasonal variations, the general behavior of the groundwater in the Călimănești-Căciulata area is typical for the waters from the meteoric circuit, both according to the average values of the deuterium concentrations and according to their variations in time. The possibility of defining mixing lines of groundwater sources in this area is a criterion for integration into a single hydrodynamic system, which was formed by mixing, in different proportions, water infiltrated at high altitudes (mountain area) and water. of local infiltration, in accordance with tectonic lines and geological formations.

The SIDDHARTA-2 calibration method for high precision kaonic atoms x-ray spectroscopy measurements

The SIDDHARTA-2 experiment at the DAΦNE collider aims to perform the first kaonic deuterium x-ray transitions to the fundamental level measurement, with a systematic error at the level of a few eV. To achieve this challenging goal the experimental apparatus is equipped with 384 Silicon Drift Detectors (SDDs) distributed around its cryogenic gaseous target. The SDDs developed by the SIDDHARTA-2 collaboration are suitable for high precision kaonic atoms spectroscopy, thanks to their high energy and time resolutions combined with their radiation hardness. The energy response of each detector must be calibrated and monitored to keep the systematic error, due to processes such as gain fluctuations, at the level of 2–3 eV. This paper presents the SIDDHARTA-2 calibration method which was optimized during the preliminary phase of the experiment in the real background conditions of the DAΦNE collider, which is a fundamental tool to guarantee the high precision spectroscopic performances of the system over long periods of data taking, as that required for the kaonic deuterium measurement.

Kaonic atoms at the DAΦNE collider with the SIDDHARTA-2 experiment

Kaonic atoms are a unique tool to explore quantum chromodynamics in the strangeness sector at low energy, with implications reaching neutron stars and dark matter. Precision x-ray spectroscopy can fully unlock the at-threshold isospin dependent antikaon-nucleon scattering lengths, via the atomic transitions to the fundamental level. While the SIDDHARTA experiment at the INFN-LNF DAΦNE collider successfully measured kaonic hydrogen, its successor SIDDHARTA-2 is starting now its data taking campaign aiming to finally fully disentangle the isoscalar and isovector scattering lengths via the measurement of kaonic deuterium. An overview of the first experimental results from a preparatory run for the SIDDAHARTA-2 experiment is presented.

What does cosmology tell us about the mass of thermal-relic dark matter?

The presence of light thermally coupled dark matter affects early expansion history and production of light elements during the Big Bang Nucleosynthesis. Specifically, dark matter that annihilates into Standard Model particles can modify the effective number of light species in the universe N eff, as well as the abundance of light elements created buring BBN. These quantities in turn affect the cosmic microwave background (CMB) anisotropy. We present the first joint analysis of small-scale temperature and polarization CMB anisotropy from Atacama Cosmology Telescope (ACT) and South Pole Telescope (SPT), together with Planck data and the recent primordial abundance measurements of helium and deuterium to place comprehensive bounds on the mass of light thermal-relic dark matter. We consider a range of models, including dark matter that couples to photons and Standard-Model neutrinos. We discuss the sensitivity of the inferred mass bounds on measurements of N eff, primordial element abundances and the baryon density, and quantify the sensitivity of our results to a possible existence of additional relativistic species. We find that the combination of ACT, SPT, and Planck generally leads to the most stringent mass constraint for dark matter that couples to neutrinos, improving the lower limit by 40%–80%, with respect to previous Planck analyses. On the other hand, the addition of ACT and SPT leads to a slightly weaker bound on electromagnetically coupled particles, due to a shift in the preferred values of Y p and N eff driven by the ground based experiments. In most scenarios, the combination of CMB data has a higher constraining power than the primordial abundance measurements alone, with the best results achieved when all data are combined. Combining all CMB measurements with primordial abundance measurements, we rule out masses below ∼4 MeV at 95% confidence, for all models.We show that allowing for new relativistic species can weaken the mass bounds for dark matter that couples to photons by up to an order of magnitude or more.Finally, we discuss the reach of the next generation of the CMB experiments in terms of probing the mass of the thermal relic dark matter.

Identification of the water source and groundwater recharge in a paddy field using stable hydrogen and oxygen isotopes

AbstractThe stable isotopes of oxygen-18 and deuterium were utilized to identify different water sources mixing in the soil layer that recharged to groundwater of a paddy field during the growth season in 2014. Based on the measurements of deuterium and oxygen-18 in soil water, rainwater and groundwater in the paddy field of Chianan Plain in Southwest Taiwan in the wet season was collected, and the relationship between δD and δ18O in soil water and groundwater recharge was investigated in this study. The soil water in the paddy field of Chianan plain was collected with suction lysimeters for the identification of different sources of subsurface flow. The isotopic compositions of hydrogen and oxygen in different water bodies were used to evaluate the groundwater recharge sources in the paddy field. The intensity of rainfall and evaporation influenced the saturation conditions of pore water present in the soil layer. In general, transiently intense rainfall tended to be difficult in recharging groundwater. The results show the use of stable isotopes in water bodies can be used to monitor or identify the source/sink of soil layer and their respective contributions to groundwater recharge. In this research, the isotopic compositions of hydrogen and oxygen in the soil water at different depths before and after event water were identified. The top soil layer (<30 cm depth) in the presence of the isotope depleted soil water was probably subjected to evaporation. The soil water has more depleted isotope composition that was observed in shallow soil layers. More depleted fraction of isotopes in groundwater was similar to rainwater, which suggested that the groundwater was primarily from rainfall. In addition, the isotopic compositions of hydrogen and oxygen in groundwater slightly deviated from the local meteoric water line in southern Taiwan.

High precision Kaonic Deuterium measurement at the DAΦNE collider: the SIDDHARTA-2 experiment and the SIDDHARTINO run

The kaonic deuterium 2p→1s transition X-ray measurement, a fundamental information needed for a deeper understanding of the Quantum ChromoDynamics (QCD) in the strangeness sector, is still missing. The SIDDHARTA-2 collaboration is now ready to achieve this unprecedented result thanks to the dedicated experimental apparatus that will allow to obtain the values of the kaonic deuterium K-transitions with a precision comparable to the most precise kaonic hydrogen measurement to-date performed by SIDDHARTA in 2009. Both the kaonic hydrogen and kaonic deuterium X-ray spectroscopy measurements of the de-excitation towards the fundamental level are a direct probe on KN interaction at threshold, as opposed to the scattering experiments which need an extrapolation to zero energy. Combining these results through the Deser-Truemann like formula, the isospin-dependent kaon-nucleon scattering lengths can be obtained in a model-independent way. The SIDDHARTA-2 setup is presently installed at the DAΦNE (Double Annular Φ Factory for Nice Experiments) collider of Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare – Laboratori Nazionali di Frascati and it is ready to perform the challening kaonic deuterium measurement. Thispaper provides an overview on the SIDDHARTA-2 experimental apparatus and a preliminary result of the kaonic helium run, preparatory for the SIDDHARTA-2 data taking campaign, is also presented.

GEOLOGICAL AND GEOPHYSICAL CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING THE MINERAL AND GEOTHERMAL WATERS FROM THE RAMNICU VALCEA - GOVORA AREA

For understanding of complex geological and geophysical phenomena, regarding the mineral and geothermal waters, we must base on the whole of knowledge and available data for the study area. The input data include: digital terrain models, geological and geophysical maps, sections, drill-holes and geological interpretation, for assemble together into the same space data from various sources, in order to ensure geometrical coherence. Also, the database includes measurements of deuterium (δD (‰)) and overall salt content (∆d (mg/l)) expressed as the difference in density between a distilled water taken as a standard and water sample. Are important to take into account the geology 'boundary' data (geology contacts, interfaces and limits), the deep geology and processing/filtering of geophysical data with properly algorithms. The type of filtering of gravimetric and magnetic data must be chosen based on the depth of the model we want to get. This is necessary because the values of the geophysical parameters recorded at the surface of the terrain contain weighted average information from both the surface and from different depths, even to the base of the Lithosphere. In this paper we made some geological and geophysical considerations regarding the mineral and geothermal waters from the Ramnicu Valcea - Govora area. The types of water sources targeted are mineral springs, boreholes and surface water in the area