Maritime Cybersecurity Research Articles

A modular cyber security training programme for the maritime domain

The global maritime industry is continuing the rapid digitization of systems and dependency on advancing technology, in a trend akin to other industrial domains. One of the main issues that this integration has brought is an increased vulnerability to a growing number of cyber threats. While several security measures are being implemented to prevent or respond to cyber attacks, the human element is still one of the main weaknesses. Many of today’s cyber attacks take advantage of human personnel’s lack of awareness, which makes cyber security awareness and training activities of critical importance. Unfortunately, current research is still limited in its offerings for cyber security training specific to maritime personnel. Moreover, such training programmes for the professionals should be developed role-based in accordance with the suggestions of many credited maritime organizations. For this reason, we developed a modular cyber security training programme for the maritime domain called Maritime Cyber Security (MarCy) by implementing Critical Events Model (CEM). Then, we evaluated the MarCy programme by utilizing the Delphi technique with the participation of 19 experts from academia and industry. In this study, we offer cyber security training for seafarers and office employees in shipping companies. We proposed eleven elective modules to improve the knowledge, skills, and attitude of learners against cyber risks. The MarCy programme can be implemented by universities, shipping companies, training institutes, and governmental organizations for maritime cyber security training purposes.

Navigating Uncharted Waters: Tackling Maritime Cybersecurity Challenges in the Black Sea Region

Navigating Uncharted Waters: Tackling Maritime Cybersecurity Challenges in the Black Sea Region

Maritime Cybersecurity. Navigational Aspect

Maritime Cybersecurity. Navigational Aspect

Quantifying potential cyber-attack risks in maritime transportation under Dempster–Shafer theory FMECA and rule-based Bayesian network modelling

Maritime cyber security is a growing concern in the shipping industry as reliance on technology increases. With the potential for cyber attacks to disrupt vessel operations, compromise sensitive information, and endanger crew and cargo, assessing the risks and developing effective risk management strategies is crucial. On the other hand, cyber risk assessments in maritime transportation have been limited, and there is a lack of probabilistic databases of cyber threats. To remedy this gap, this paper presents a probabilistic approach to estimate cyber threats, especially for the bridge navigational systems in the maritime sector, focusing on the Bayesian network model to evaluate cyber risks for integrated bridge navigational systems onboard, and marine security experts evaluate 32 threats with respect to FMECA (Failure modes, Effect and Criticality Analysis) parameters. Dempster-Shafer theory is utilised to consolidate expert opinions for cyber risk analysis. The findings of the research showed that AIS spoofing poses the highest risk. GPS jamming is the other significant threat to ship bridge navigational systems during cyber attacks. The research provides a basis for identifying cyber threats and risks, calculating the highest risk values and developing control actions to maintain effective risk management strategies for safe and secure maritime transportation.

Challenges for Seafarers Education and Training in the Context of Autonomous Ships Development

Education and training of seafarers are defined in the provisions of the International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers (STCW Convention) and elaborated by the set of the International Maritime Organization (IMO) Model Courses. These documents represent minimum requirements for the education and training of seafarers at the international level. IMO member states shall integrate these requirements as appropriate into their maritime high school and college training programs and into training programs leading to STCW certification. Although there are different views in the literature and in practice about the existing seafarers training system, this system is standardized worldwide. This allows consistent acquisition of knowledge, skills, and competences for seafarers on merchant ships. The development and gradual introduction of autonomous ships raises numerous questions about the future trends of world shipping. Various researches are currently being conducted on autonomous ships. This technological progress brings with itself many challenges and one of them is the education of the personnel who will control and monitor these ships. It is clear that a new approach to seafarer’s education needs to be developed. The development of this concept opens numerous questions from different segments of shipping and maritime security in general, particularly in the context of maritime cyber security. The paper analyses the education concept for seafarers in the Republic of Croatia, paying special attention to trends related to the development and deployment of Maritime Autonomous Surface Ship (MASS).

Modelling of Maritime Cyber Security Education and Training

The existence of sophisticated and integrated cyberspace aboard ships with information technology (IT) and operational technology (OT) makes cybersecurity a crucial concern for the maritime sector. The marine sector has benefited greatly from information and communication technologies, but they have also made ship systems and maritime infrastructure more susceptible to cyberattacks. Cyberattacks on ships have the potential to result in fatalities, severe financial losses, environmental damage, and other negative effects. A model course or specification for maritime cyber security education and training through the International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification, and Watchkeeping for Seafarers (STCW) 1978 has not yet been published by the International Maritime Organization (IMO), despite the fact that MSC.428 mandates cyber security risk management in the safety management system on ships to combat cyber-attacks and improve cyber resistance in maritime environments. The Analytic Hierarchical Process (AHP) technique is used in this work to offer a model for a curriculum for cyber security in the Maritime Education and Training (MET) system. It is possible to identify each competency’s priority in the MET system’s cyber security curriculum by comparing the relative weights assigned to each one. The results of the research provide the Met Institutions with the ability to be proactive and include cyber security knowledge and abilities into proposed curricula.

Maritime Cybersecurity Education and Training at Nikola Vaptsarov Naval Academy

As of the beginning of 2021, a set of new requirements has been introduced by the International Maritime Organization (IMO), necessitating established rules and measures about the cybersecurity of the ship’s systems. That is to ensure a certain level of cybersecurity onboard, as well as re-occurring training of onboard staff, is required, to maintain cybersecurity measures. That leads to a new vector of postgraduate certification and namely – ships’ system cybersecurity and cybersecurity management. Its purpose is to provide the necessary knowledge and skills, related to fulfilling the requirements of the IMO. This paper examines some aspects of education and training of the ship’s crew regarding cybersecurity.

Literature review on maritime cybersecurity: state-of-the-art

AbstractMaritime cybersecurity has attracted increasing attention in industrial and academic scope, which may be relevant to the increasing cyber-incidents in the maritime shipping industry. This paper presents a critical review of publications related to cybersecurity in the maritime transportation industry, to explore the current research status and gaps, as wells as to guide new probe avenues by employing bibliometric approaches. With the advantage of bibliometric methods, the research focus and evolution are conformed and visualised. Representative papers are reviewed together to demonstrate maritime cyber-threats recognition and categories, as well as potential consequence assessment and risk mitigation actions recommendation. This paper also created a detailed database that is comprised of attack form, occurring time, targets, purpose, as well as potential results and cost, which has been included in the Appendix and is fully portable and extendible.

AN EVALUATION OF STUDENTS' CYBERSECURITY AWARENESS IN THE MARITIME INDUSTRY

Maritime operations have now become faster, safer, and more secure than before, as technological changes in the maritime industry have increased significantly over the past decade. However, no matter how advanced the technology is, removing the human variable from maritime operations is still impossible. Cybersecurity is one of the primary concepts that both enhance human adaptation to technology and reduce risk within the maritime industry. Training and raising situational awareness of maritime cybersecurity are the most basic of many defences to reduce vulnerabilities resulting from human beings not adopting technological changes. Therefore, this study proposes that maritime students’ cybersecurity awareness should be investigated. For this purpose, a questionnaire is used, including 3 attitude scales. This is presented and applied to a sample group including 168 participants representing the population. This evaluation of students’ cybersecurity awareness is aimed to provide taking the first steps to raise cybersecurity awareness in the maritime industry. In this study after a comprehensive investigation, quite striking findings have been obtained regarding awareness of maritime students' cyber security, and suggestions are made to increase students’ cybersecurity awareness in the maritime industry.

Cyber-seaworthiness: A critical review of the literature

This paper provides a thorough literature review of maritime cyber-risks and the maritime cyber-security policy framework, focusing on the concept of seaworthiness. Policy instruments in force, do not focus on cyber-threats, and the industry addresses relevant challenges, with recommendations and expertise from third parties. Moreover, increased digitization of operations, as well as the advent of marine autonomous surface ships (MASS), imply higher relevant risks and require new mitigation strategies. This work demonstrates that the prevailing definitions of seaworthiness do not suffice in the contemporary context of operations characterized by a high degree of automation. In this regard, the term cyber-seaworthiness is newly introduced and defined with the aim of addressing the identified gaps. This novel approach shall enhance certainty levels to the industry and serve as a basis for future research, legal argumentation, as well as policy making.

A BN driven FMEA approach to assess maritime cybersecurity risks

Cybersecurity risks present a growing concern in the maritime industry, especially due to the fast development of digitalised technologies, also vis-à-vis autonomous shipping. Research on maritime cybersecurity is receiving increased attention. This paper aims to assess the cybersecurity risks in the maritime sector and improve safety at sea and in coastal areas. First, we identify all the concerned cyber threats in the sector based on literature review and expert opinion. A novel risk assessment framework of maritime cyber threats, which combines Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA) with a Rule-based Bayesian Network (RBN), is proposed and used to evaluate the risk levels of the identified threats and to better understand the threats that contribute the most to the overall maritime cybersecurity risk. The results can inform stakeholders about the most vulnerable parts in their cyber operations and stimulate the development of risk-based control measures. More specifically, the next step in managing cyber threats is to tackle the threats that are associated with unacceptable risk levels and identify cost-effective measures to manage them. To that extent, our findings provide a list of top threats – that is the areas where efforts should be focused on. As a result, this work can help the whole community to grow its resilience to cyber-attacks and improve the security of shipping operations.

A Critical Reflection on African Maritime Cybersecurity Frameworks

ith a coastline of 26,000 nautical miles and 38 out of 55 African states being either coastal or island states, trading activities on the continent are facilitated by over a hundred port facilities in the region, which make up 90 per cent of African seaborne trade. These factors indicate that the continent is dependent on well-run ports, effective protection of its maritime resources, and regulated shipping. Regulating the maritime sector requires new technologies that come at the cost of cyber vulnerabilities. However, in Africa, there are very few legal instruments, both at national and at regional level, specifically addressing the issue of cyberattacks on ships and port facilities. Given the lack of attention given to maritime security and the lack of collective action from African states, the study on which this article reports, sought to provide a critical reflection on how cyber technology is affecting is affecting the African maritime domain; and the consequences that could manifest should the cybersecurity of ships, ports, and their critical infrastructure continue to be ignored. The aim of this study was to broaden the understanding of the maritime cybersecurity legal frameworks in Africa by using the ‘black letter’ methodology, which is a positivist approach described by academics as being the best avenue by which to assess the existence, meaning and application of a defined system of legal principles. In engaging with those conventions, policies, laws, and regulations that are currently guiding the area of maritime cybersecurity, the study sought to identify the gaps in the legal frameworks on the continent and to provide policy recommendations.

A hybrid AHP-TOPSIS for risk analysis in maritime cybersecurity based on 3D models

A hybrid AHP-TOPSIS for risk analysis in maritime cybersecurity based on 3D models

ПИТАННЯ ВДОСКОНАЛЕННЯ КІБЕРБЕЗПЕКИ МОРСЬКОГО ТРАНСПОРТУ: ЗАРУБІЖНИЙ ДОСВІД

An analysis of modern national publications shows that, although in Ukraine considerable attention is being payed to the general organization of maritime transport security, the due interest has not yet been shown to the new important area, such as the maritime transport cybersecurity. Therefore, the article touches upon the best practices in organizing the cybersecurity of marine ships. The assertion that the general danger of maritime transport has increased significantly in recent years is based on the facts of the introduction of information technology into the operational technologies of maritime transport. The bottom line is that information technology is closely linked to the Internet, and this is what, in the first place, makes the operational technologies of maritime transport open to deliberate external interference, which, according to experts, can provide external control of the vessel with the aim of capsizing, colliding or causing environment disaster. The general concern of the leading maritime states about the situation is confirmed by a number of documents, such as Resolution of the Maritime Security Committee MSC.428 (98), adopted on June 16, 2017 and requiring member states to take into account the management of cyber risks. The paper analyzes a typical approach to the development of an action plan for the organization of maritime cybersecurity on board a ship. The preliminary preparation steps are considered, ranging from updating passwords and software to training the team. It is indicated that today, all over the world, the direct development of such a plan is recommended to be carried out on the basis of the “The Guidelines on Cyber Security onboard Ships”, developed and supported by leading international organizations related to maritime transport operations. The plan created on the basis of this guide, in essence, is to manage cyber risks and boils down to the following: identifying internal and external threats, internal and external vulnerabilities; risk exposure assessment; development of measures to reduce these vulnerabilities; developing contingency plans; developing plans for recovery measures after cyber incidents. The general rise in the culture of personnel to a modern level is a necessary element of ensuring cybersecurity in maritime transport.

Evaluating SLIM-based human error probability for ECDIS cybersecurity in maritime

AbstractThere is an undeniable recognition that maritime cybersecurity risk management should involve process, technology, and people. However, thus far, most studies have focused on the technical and process aspects of maritime cybersecurity, more than on the human element. On a vessel, the Electronic Chart Display and Information System (ECDIS) is, amongst all the electronic devices on the bridge, a complex and indispensable maritime sociotechnical system that must consider both technical and human aspects. In the context of maritime cyber resilience, it is important to note that when developing strategies for maritime cybersecurity, one cannot only consider technical security measures and ignore human error, as this does not adhere to good cybersecurity practice. To address this, this study aims to identify the navigating officers’ responsibilities for ECDIS cybersecurity and find the human error probabilities during these tasks via the SLIM-based human reliability analysis method. The outputs of this study provide an insight for industrial policies and best practices, in ECDIS cybersecurity risk management in terms of the behavioural and cultural aspects of shipping.

Maritime cybersecurity: are onboard systems ready?

ABSTRACT Recent maritime cybersecurity accidents reveal that shipping is facing increased exposure to cyber threats, especially due to the fast-growing digitalisation of the sector, leaving vessels and their onboard systems vulnerable to cyberattacks. This research aims at evaluating the relationship among the critical dimensions influencing cybersecurity performance in the maritime industry. To achieve this, six critical dimensions related to cybersecurity preparedness are first identified through literature review, namely ‘regulations’, ‘company procedures’ from a managerial perspective and ‘shipboard systems readiness’, ‘training and awareness’, ‘human factor’ and ‘compliance monitoring’ at an operation level. A Likert-scale questionnaire is designed and used to collect empirical data from 133 seafarers and shore-based staff. Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) is applied to examine the causal relationships between the six dimensions and shipboard cybersecurity performance. The results show that ‘regulations’ positively influence shipping companies’ cybersecurity-related ‘procedures’, which in turn positively affects ‘shipboard systems readiness’, ‘training and awareness’, and ‘monitoring’. Further, ‘training and awareness’ positively influences the cybersecurity performance of ships. The results have profound implications for the shipping industry on how to strengthen their cyber practices in order to improve their cybersecurity performance. Recommendations for future academic research related to maritime cybersecurity are also provided.

Cyber security policy in Indonesian shipping safety

Technological sophistication does not escape cyber threats. The higher the complexity of technology, the more vulnerability to cyber attacks continues to increase. In Indonesia, there are only a few Maritime Cyber Security policies and social security socialisation within government institutions. It needs to become a priority for the government, given the increasing sophistication of technology every year and the growing vulnerability of cyber threats. This study used a qualitative method with a Grounded Theory design, and data collection techniques were literature study and interviews. Cyber regulations in Indonesia are still regulated in the Information Technology and Electronic Law (abbreviated as the ITE Law) or Law number 11 of 2008 and handled by the National Cyber and Crypto Agency. Meanwhile, the regulations related to Maritime Cyber have not given special rules in Indonesia. Several international countries implemented these government policies because they believe in the importance of maritime security. Several international countries have implemented these policies because they believe in the importance of maritime security in cyberspace. This is due to increasingly sophisticated technological developments and the changing times that are increasingly digitising. The Indonesian government must immediately prioritise maritime security issues related to cyber threats in the Indonesian shipping area and establish an institution responsible for cyber problems in Indonesia's maritime space. The existence of rules or policies related to cyber security in the marine space will improve shipping safety and security in Indonesia. In this paper, the author formulates the research problem of how the Indonesian government's policy deals with the threat of Maritime Cyber in the shipping sector in Indonesia.

Maritime cybersecurity and the IMO legal instruments: Sluggish response to an escalating threat?

Maritime cybersecurity threats are sharply growing. The safety and security of ports, ships, and offshore installations are increasingly threatened due to cyberattacks from numerous sources. With the increasing digitalization of the maritime sector during the global pandemic, the number of cyberattacks on the maritime industry exponentially intensified recently. Against this backdrop, this article critically analyses the existing IMO legal instruments to identify the scope for further development. This study is based on a doctrinal analysis of recent legal and technical literature and the relevant IMO legal instruments and documents. It aims to contribute to a better understanding of the IMO regulations for ensuring maritime cybersecurity. Although the IMO adopted some legal and policy instruments for maritime cybersecurity, the current international legal framework is inadequate for effectively dealing with maritime cybersecurity threats. This article argues that further initiative may be taken for an effective international legal reform through multidimensional cooperation involving State and non-state actors.

Digital transformation of the maritime industry: A cybersecurity systemic approach

Information system solutions are increasingly being applied to the maritime industry, and eventually, all aspects of maritime operations will be aided by the digital transformation of the industry. The maritime industry is a sector driven by compliance and historically deals with security and safety matters at an international level. It has been recognized that safety and security in maritime heavily depend on cyber systems and cybersecurity implementation requirements have started to get integrated into maritime's regulatory context. This paper focuses on cybersecurity in the maritime industry, presenting an inside view of maritime cybersecurity aspects and offering a detailed case study analysis based on a real-world company's approach. The main objective of the paper is, therefore, to connect research with practice, presenting a maritime company's cybersecurity systemic approach with references to procedures and policies. The findings of the case study and the cyber security vessel audit survey that is performed show that the company was able to assess its current status, collect evidence and objectively determine security gaps, and achieve cyber risks mitigation. The gained knowledge will be used in the future to continuously improve the company's systems and move to a more predictive and proactive maturity level.

Cybersecurity Challenges in the Maritime Sector

Cyberattacks have been rapidly increasing over the years, resulting to big financial losses to businesses for recovery, regulatory sanctions, as well as collateral damages, such as reputation and trust. In this respect, the maritime sector, which until now was considered safe due to the lack of Internet connectivity and the isolated nature of ships in the sea, is showing a 900% increase in cybersecurity breaches on operational technology as it enters the digital era. Although some research is being conducted in this area, maritime cybersecurity has not been deeply investigated. Hence, this paper provides a close investigation of the landscape of cybersecurity in the maritime sector with the aim of highlighting security problems and challenges. First, it explores the systems available on ships that could be targeted by attackers, their possible vulnerabilities that an attacker could exploit, the consequences if the system is accessed, and actual incidents. Then, it describes and analyses possible mitigation actions that can be utilised in advance to prevent such attacks. Finally, several challenges and open problems are discussed for future research.