Marine Conservation Area Research Articles

Analisis Ekonomi Kelembagaan Pengelolaan Kawasan Konservasi Perairan Teluk Depapre Di Kabupaten Jayapura

The objective goal of this research is to measure the institutional economic value of marine protected area management of Depapre Bay in Jayapura Regency. This institutional economic value can be measured by transaction cost analysis and ecosystem services valuation within techniques of project based cost approach (PBCA), benefit transfer (BTM) and basic payment ecosystem serives (BPES). The result shows that the transaction cost of marine protected area management amounted IDR 6.04-12.07 billion per year, meanwhile the potential benefit of ecosystem services of marine protected area management of Depapre Bay amounted IDR 1.62 trillion per year and the basic payment ecosystem services as an entrance fee to the marine conservation area amounted IDR 51,587.52 per people per trip. Key words: transaction cost, institutional economic, ecosystem services, entrance fee, PES

Terumbu Karang Taman Wisata Perairan Pulau Pieh Sumatera Barat

Kawasan Konservasi Perairan (KKP) Taman Wisata Perairan (TWP) Pulau Pieh dan Laut Sekitarnya, terdiri dari Pulau Bando, Pulau Pieh, Pulau Air, Pulau Toran dan Pulau Pandan seluas 39.900 Ha. Secara geografis TWP Pulau Pieh berada pada koordinat 000 45’ 10” – 010 03’ 08” LS / 990 59’ 36”- 1000 59’ 28” BT, dan secara adminsitratif masuk dalam wilayah Kabupaten Padang Pariaman, Kota Pariaman dan Kota Padang. Penelitian dilaksanakan di perairan zona inti Pulau Toran TWP. Pulau Pieh pada koordinat 01⁰ 01' 55" – 01⁰ 03' 02" LS / 100⁰ 09' 36" - 100⁰ 11' 02" BT., dengan metoda LIT (Line Intercept Transect) menggunakan tali transek sepanjang 50 meter yang ditarik sejajar/horizontal hamparan terumbu karang pada enam titik stasiun pengamatan. Hasil penelitian menunjukan persentase tutupan karang hidup berkisar antara 20,94 % - 35,00 % (kategori buruk – sedang) dengan nilai rata-rata 25,93 % (kategori sedang). Nilai indeks keanekaragaman (H’) berkisar antara 1,76 – 3.16 (kategori rendah – tinggi), dengan nilai rata-rata 2,44 (kategori sedang). Nilai indeks keseragaman (E’) secara umum tergolong kategori tinggi (komunitas stabil) berkisar antara 0,77 – 1,00 dengan nilai rata-rata 0,88 (kategori sedang). Sedangkan indeks dominasi (C’) tidak menunjukan kondisi ekstrim dari salah satu spesies terhadap spesies lainnya, Hal ini diindikasikan oleh nilai indeks dominasi yang kurang dari 0,5 (kategori rendah), yaitu berkisar antara 0,05 – 0.42 dengan nilai rata-rata 0,24 (kategori rendah).

The ocean-atmospheric condition around Pieh Islands – Western Sumatra, Indonesia and its role on coral reef resilience

Pieh Islands located at the Western Sumatra is one of the most affected areas by massive coral bleaching during 2015-2016. The persistence warming or cooling of sea surface temperature due to regional climate phenomena such as El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) put the coral reef into stress condition leading into coral bleaching. However, corals have an ability to recover from such bleaching condition into normal state by reducing its stressors. A suitable oceanographic condition such as normal range of temperature and salinity, low nutrient concentration, and low sedimentation rate could support corals recovery process. This study aims to understand the variability of the ocean and atmospheric data and its role in coral reef recovery. Data gained from in situ measurements of water quality at Pieh Marine Conservation Area (PMCA) on June 2018. Several historical ocean-atmospheric data were collected to analyze their temporal variability. It is confirmed that the bleaching event was caused by positive IOD and El Niño condition in 2015-2016. However, there is the sign of coral reef recovery during 2017-2018 which is suggested due to the relatively normal condition of the ocean and atmospheric parameters in Pieh Islands.

Review management policy marine conservation area of Wakatobi National Park

Marine conservation areas have an important role in the protection of species and biodiversity. This paper aims to review policy issues in the management of marine conservation areas in Wakatobi National Park (WNP). The research is located in WNP Southeast Sulawesi Province, Indonesia. The method used in this research is qualitative method, Technique of data collecting done through, interview and observation beside study of policy document. Policies are reviewed based on text analysis. Marine conservation areas have an important role in the protection of species and biodiversity. The results of the Wakatobi national park management policy review, there are two authorities that have a role in the management of the area. Coordination and cooperation are required in the management so that the sustainability of conservation areas can run well.

Species composition and habitat preferences of the nearshore fish fauna of Bonne Bay, Newfoundland

BackgroundDetermining biodiversity baseline is the first step toward establishing species monitoring and conservation programs. In this study we report on a 10-year survey of the fish fauna of Bonne Bay, a fjord surrounded by the Gros Morne National Park on the west coast of Newfoundland, Canada. The objectives of our study were: 1) to determine the fish fauna of Bonne Bay using standardized sampling methods; 2) to gather information on the habitats of fishes of conservation concern; and 3) to provide baseline information on Bonne Bay as a potential candidate for a National Marine Conservation Area (NMCA).MethodsA survey of the fish fauna of the inner Bonne Bay was conducted each summer from 2002 to 2011 at multiple sites representing a range of fish habitats within the fjord. Sampling gears included two types of beach seine, gillnets with various mesh sizes and a bottom trawl. Species composition was statistically compared across sites within the fjord.ResultsWe collected and identified 29 fish species from 17 families. Fish assemblages comprised anadromous, estuarine, and marine fish species, including a late-maturing type of winter skate (Leucoraja ocellata) that is rarely found in the adjacent waters of the northern Gulf of St. Lawrence. Similarity in species composition across sites reflected salinity, substrate composition, and presence of eelgrass (Zostera marina), but not the geographic distance between sites.ConclusionsBonne Bay’s adjacency to a United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Site, its diverse fish fauna that includes several species of conservation concern, its potential for education and enjoyment, and its stewardship by local people are suggestive of the future candidacy as a NMCA. The data presented here will help managers assess the potential of Bonne Bay as a National Marine Conservation Area.

Satellite remote-sensing observations for definitions of areas for marine conservation: Case study of the Scotian Slope, Eastern Canada

Characterizing offshore areas for marine conservation faces impediment from logistics and costs of in situ data collection. This study leveraged the high spatial and temporal coverage provided by remote-sensing ocean colour products, and the concept of biogeographical classification to delineate areas in the pelagic environment with application to marine conservation. Satellite-derived and modelled biogeophysical data were used to delineate an area of biological and physical homogeneity spatially consistent with the static boundaries of the Scotian Slope Ecologically and Biologically Significant Area (EBSA), off eastern Canada. We used iterative cluster analysis applied to an archive (2004–2014) that consisted of remotely-sensed Chlorophyll a, sea-surface temperature, and primary production derived from the Moderate resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), and simulated mixed layer depth to define “dynamic” boundaries of the EBSA at bi-weekly, seasonal and annual resolutions. The final cluster extended further east than the static EBSA in summer and fall, indicating that characteristics of the static EBSA environment persist beyond the current boundaries in these seasons. In winter and spring, the final areas derived by our analysis was smaller than the static EBSA, but again showed extension beyond the current eastern boundary. Both ice and cloud cover affecting remotely-sensed data and the extent of water column mixing were important in determining the size of the final cluster. The dynamic cluster east of the original static boundary incorporated an area of lower Chlorophyll a and water column primary production in the spring, but higher values in the autumn relative to the static area. Overall physical and biological characteristics of the static and dynamic EBSA considered in this research were similar within and across years. This methodology incorporates ocean-colour data and modelled estimates of multiple biological and physical characteristics to objectively refine areas of ecological interest at a spatial scale relevant for the management of marine conservation areas.

Connecting in nature

Canada has 46 national parks and reserves, 171 national historic sites and four national marine conservation areas, adding up to 300,000 square kilometres of protected areas. They represent the country's massive, yet varied, landscapes from the towering mountains of Waterton Lakes National Park in Alberta, to the sparkling sands of Sable Island National Park Reserve off Nova Scotia, to the lush rain forest of Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve on the coast of British Columbia. All these places tell Canada's ecological and cultural story. As its population becomes increasingly urban – and with the average park over two hours from a city – the need is to make more visiting opportunities available.

Contribution of local governments to a national commitment of the Aichi Biodiversity Target 11: the case of West Nusa Tenggara Province, Indonesia

As a mega-biodiversity country, Indonesia ratified the United Nations Convention of Biological Diversity in 1994, and by so doing, Indonesia is obliged to meet Aichi Biodiversity Target 11. The target states: ‘by 2020, at least 17 per cent of terrestrial and inland water areas and 10 per cent of coastal and marine areas, especially areas of particular importance for biodiversity and ecosystem services, are conserved through effectively and equitably managed, ecologically representative and well-connected systems of protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures, and integrated into the wider landscape and seascape’. Indonesia has been committed to set aside 20 million hectares of its coastal and marine waters for biodiversity conservation by 2020, en route to achieving the national target of at least 30 million hectares in the future. Here we demonstrate how the development and expansion of marine protected areas (MPAs) at the local level is crucial if the national government is to achieve the target. Using West Nusa Tenggara (WNT) Province as a case study, we describe the current achievements as well as plans for expanding marine conservation areas in the province by 2020. Despite challenges along the way, by 2016 the province managed to set aside 229,555.36 ha for biodiversity conservation thanks to the district governments’ efforts for establishing MPAs in their respective region. This figure covers approximately 7.87% of the province’s marine waters and contributed 1.25% to the national target of marine conservation areas in 2017. Intelligent preparation of the province’s coastal and small islands zoning plan will provide opportunities to allocate around 100,000 ha more to the WNT coastal and marine waters for conservation areas. With this addition, the total area is estimated to reach around 330,000 ha or approximately 10.29% of the province’s marine waters and would contribute 1.50% to the national target of marine conservation areas by 2020. The related challenges and opportunities for reaching this important target in WNT Province are discussed.

DNA barcode of Acropora hyacinthus of Karimunjawa Archipelago

Karimunjawa is one of the earliest marine parks in Indonesia. Karimunjawa National Park (KNP) was designated as a marine conservation area to conserve marine resources from destructive fishing activities. Scleractinian corals in the genus Acropora are among the most dominant distributed in the KNPs, including the species of Acropora hyacinthus. Here, we present a comprehensive analysis of intra- and interspecific COI variabilities in A. hyacinthus to analyze genetic diversity and to describe the kinship relationship of the coral between 5 localities of the reefs. Genetic marker Cytochrome Oxidase I of the mitochondrial genome DNA (mtDNA) was used to analyze genetic diversity. Reconstruction of phylogenetic tree and genetic diversity were made by using software MEGA 5.05 (Molecular Evolutionary Genetics Analysis). The results indicate corals A. hyacinthus from five localities of Karimunjawa Archipelago are in the high category of genetic diversity. However, the five populations showed a close genetic relationship of kinship. This is likely due to the small size of the population and few numbers of samples that may not represent the population. The results may aid managers of the park in the selection of appropriate propagules sources which can help to restore important data for conservation and sustain coral reef resources.

Fisherman Livelihood Effects on Marine Conservation Area towards Sustainable Development

Excessive utilization of coastal resources is threatening the livelihood of coastal dependent people. The current challenge is how to maintain and use coastal resources sustainably without reducing their potential benefits in the future. In response to coastal sustainability issues, many countries have implemented a policy to support marine protected areas. Until 2008, approximately 3.2 million hectares of marine protected areas conserved in Indonesia. One of them located in Ujungnegoro-Roban, Batang Regency of Central Java Province, Indonesia. This study aims to analyze fisherman livelihoods in Ujungnegoro-Roban, which may affect the fishermen’s conservation choices. This study employs questionnaire survey as the main data collection source, which was distributed to 60 fishermen randomly. The findings indicated some fisherman livelihood factors which have significant support for conservation activities, i.e. age, experience, income level and fisherman organization membership.

Ancient DNA analysis of Indigenous rockfish use on the Pacific Coast: Implications for marine conservation areas and fisheries management

Rockfish (Sebastes spp.) are a common marine fish in nearshore and continental shelf environments in the North Pacific Ocean. They are frequently identified in coastal archaeological sites in western North America; however, the morphological similarity of rockfish species limits conventional zooarchaeological identifications to the genus level. This study applies ancient DNA analysis to 96 archaeological rockfish specimens from four sites on separate islands in an archipelago on western Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada. Two of the archaeological sites are located within a marine protected area specifically designed to facilitate the recovery of inshore rockfish populations; two sites are located outside this boundary and remain subject to considerable fishing pressure. Using mitochondrial 16S and control region DNA sequences, we identify at least twelve different rockfish species utilized during the past 2,500 years. Identification of rockfish at closely spaced and contemporaneously occupied sites confirms that a variety of Sebastes species were consistently exploited at each site, with more exposed areas having a higher number of species present. Identification results indicate that four of the twelve species did not occur within the conservation area boundary and, instead, were found in sites where commercial and recreational fishing continues to be permitted. This study demonstrates that ancient DNA identifications of archaeological assemblages can complement and expand perspective on modern day fisheries conservation and management in this National Park Reserve and First Nations ancestral territory.

FISHERIES AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS IN THE GREAT JAKARTA BAY ECOSYSTEM

The Great Jakarta Bay Ecosystem (GJBE) supports the economic growth for the surrounding community, including fisheries sector. This large ecosystem is consisted of two coastal ecosystems, i.e. Jakarta Bay and Thousands islands. There are only traditional fisheries operating either in Jakarta Bay or Thousand islands. Some economically important fisheries include shrimp, demersal and small pelagic fisheries, which are caught using different fishing gears, either active or passive fishing gears. There are some serious concerns related to the fish resources and habitat degradations in the GJBE, which in turn can cause the decrease in fish population and fish species diversity, respectively. CPUE and catch composition of the fixed lift nets, sero and fixed gillnet fisheries were obtained from the observations in 2006 and 2014. In addition, to determine the level of pollution, tissue samples were collected for green mussel (Perna viridis), blue swimming crab (Portunus pelagicus) and white-spotted spinefoot (Siganus canaliculatus) in 2009. The CPUE trend and catch composition showed that overfishing might have been occurring in the Jakarta Bay. The histological study on gill tissues of the three species shows that the Jakarta Bay has been polluted. Several efforts have been done to address the problems, including sea farming, habitat rehabilitation (artificial reef and mangrove restoration), marine conservation area and fish shelter, restocking and sea ranching.

ANALISIS CEMARAN LIMBAH INDUSTRI DAN DOMESTIK TERHADAP BIOTA LAUT DI PERAIRAN KOTA TANJUNGPINANG, PROVIPNSI KEPULAUAN RIAU

Industrial sector is the second priority in development of Tanjungpinang city. The mining industry, processing industry, transport and food are thriving . People has the opinion that a small industry is an industry that does not threaten the environment, so that the small-scale industrial waste are sometimes were forgotten due to it is not significant, and not too dangerous, whereas the B3 waste contained in domestic waste can cause disturbance of marine life and the ecosystem this will have potential to destroy the ecosystem. This study aims to explain the impact of B3 and domestic waste pollution to the environment, especially marine waters to marine life, and feedback to the provincial government for the formulation strategy of the management of the Tanjungpinang waters environment. For the analysis, 10 water samples and 15 aquatic biota was taken at different locations. While the quantitative analysis of pollutants carried by observing a population of the elements of hazardous substances from sediment samples, water and biota network. XRF techniques (X-Ray Fluorescence) and AAS (Atomic Absorbance Spectroscopy) used for the analysis content of the samples. The pollution index determined by compare metal concentration ratio the polluted areas with the standard metal concentration areas that were not polluted. The results show that the coastal water of tanjungpinang have been contaminated by heavy metals (As, Cd, Cu , Pb, Zn, and Ni) with pollution index 2.91 - 5.96. The pollutant Metals were came from the human activities in the shipbuilding industry usually Pb and Zn which is the main component of the paint. While heavy metals such as arsenic (As), Cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu) probably derived from bauxite mining activity, the high levels of nitrate is a sign of agricultural activities that use fertilizers. Unfortunately the rest of it discharged into the coastal waters of Tanjungpinang city, and there is also pollution of E-coli from human waste. Biota that live in the waters of Tanjungpinang have been contaminated by heavy metals (Hg, Zn, and Ar) by bioaccumulation. The related activity of the pollutant was the bauxite processing industry in the past. Heavy metal pollution is highest in Kijing (Pilsbryoconcha exillis) which includes : Hg, Cr, As, Cu, Zn, Ni, and the dimersal fish that have limited movement. Feedback given is that provincial governments do mangrove reforestation along the coast and estuaries, and create marine conservation areas determination of areas (KKLD) in the strait Dompak water. Key Words : heavy metals, marine life, coastal water of tanjungpinang, mangrove

MANFAAT KAWASAN KONSERVASI PESISIR DAN PULAU KECIL (KKP3K) PULAU KOON DAN PERAIRAN SEKITARNYA BAGI PENINGKATAN KEJEHTERAAN MASYARAKAT

The management of marine resources should be managed effectively and sustainably for the welfare of the people, especially local people living in coastal areas and small islands. This study aims to assess the benefits of marine conservation areas for community welfare. The method used is case study with field survey approach through focus group discussion and then interview with key informant. The research is located in the area of ​​Coastal and Small Islands Conservation (KKP3K3K) Small Island Park-Koon Island, Small Islands and Its Surrounding Waters, East Seram District, Maluku Province. The analytical method used is qualitative descriptive analysis. The results show that coastal communities living around the conservation area know that conservation areas are a prohibition zone for fishing utilization. Determination of this conservation area provides important benefits for coastal communities, especially fishermen because it can increase the catch of fishermen before the establishment of conservation areas.

The importance of beliefs in predicting support for a South Coast National Marine Conservation Area in Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) frequently fall short of their stated goals as marine conservation tools due to various regulatory, physical, sociocultural, and economic reasons. MPA designation, however, continues to be used for perceived conservation and socioeconomic benefits for adjacent communities. Local beliefs regarding ecological and socio-economic outcomes often influence the public support for MPAs and ultimately their effectiveness. This paper focuses on understanding local residents' beliefs regarding a potential South Coast National Marine Conservation Area (NMCA) in Newfoundland and Labrador and how those beliefs influence resident support for the NMCA. Data were collected from 180 Burgeo residents through a household survey. While 33% supported the designation of a South Coast NMCA, 43% opposed it and 26% were unsure. A principal component analysis (PCA) extracted five belief constructs. A regression model was used to examine relationships between these constructs and support for a South Coast NMCA. The results indicate that perceived economic development and marine conservation were the best predictors of support for NMCA establishment. Qualitative data analysis supported these findings and was used to better understand these relationships, with a minority of respondents seeing economic opportunities and protection and conservation as causes for support of the proposal. Qualitative responses also revealed strong concerns about the loss of traditional and current means of livelihood. If a South Coast NMCA is to be considered feasible it will require greater support and a shift in resident beliefs. This will require effective stakeholder engagement and increased educational and information campaigns.

The Impact Of Stakeholder Relations On The Mnemba Island Marine Conservation Area, Zanzibar, Tanzania

Tourism has the potential to be used as a positive tool for growth in developing nations. In order to gain the most benefit from tourism, planning and management is vital for successful tourism destination development and the attainment of conservation goals. This process should involve all stakeholders who might be affected by tourism and associated developments. In order for collaboration to be effective, there are certain social aspects that need to exist in stakeholder relationships such as open communication, transparency, and trust. Research has shown that these social variables are vital for the successful collaborative management of natural resources, and as such are important to the health of social and ecological systems upon which the future of tourism depends. This article investigates stakeholder relations and how these have influenced the Mnemba Island Marine Conservation Area in Zanzibar, Tanzania. Findings suggest a lack of structure in the working relationships of key stakeholders. As a result, these relationships are strained. Despite the importance of formal agreements and structured relations, these have been difficult to implement due to stakeholder conflict over resource control. Social variables (e.g., trust, transparency) shaping stakeholder relations had a largely negative impact on the health of social and ecological systems. Suggestions for a more detailed investigation into the complexities, challenges, and possibilities for stakeholder working relationships in the Mnemba Island Marine Conservation Area are provided.

SPATIAL ANALYSIS IDENTIFICATION OF IDEAL AREAS CONSERVATION LOCATION IN TUAL CITY, MALUKU PROVINCE


 Tual City is the one of eleven districts / cities in Maluku Province. The city includes an archipelago town, has 66 islands divided into 3 island clusters, covering the cluster of Kur islands, Tayando Tam and Dullah. The sea area reaches 19,088 Km2, while the land area is 254.39 km2. The size of the sea in this area indicates the high utilization potential of both fisheries and tourism sector. Based on these, needed resources management the coastal and marine resources effectively, one of them by developing conservation area in coastal area and small islands. Tual City took the initiative to allocate part of its area to be reserved as a marine conservation area. The target of the formation of urban water conservation area Tual is the protection of important marine habitats consisting of coral reefs, seagrass and mangrove, sea turtle nesting beaches and connectivity larvae. This study was conducted to obtain potential locations of marine conservation areas that have high conservation value. Analysis of spatial data using Marxan analysis. This analysis was chosen because it provides the best solution for determining locations that have high conservation value. The results of the study indicate that the area of selected high frequency locations is 125,000 hectares, while 40,000 hectares and 64,000 hectares low. Selected high-frequency locations are in the cluster of Kur islands, Tayando Tam and in the waters north of Mas Island and Bair. Based on this study, the cluster of Kur and Tayando Tam islands become the recommended sites requiring the management of marine conservation areas as they are representative of all conservation targets.
 
 
 Keywords
 Marine Protected Area, Marxan, and Tual City

Kontribusi wisata bahari terhadap kesejahteraan masyarakat pesisir pulau Nusa Penida, Klungkung

Bali’s marine resources is an important economy asset as well as food resource for local community and marine tourism. Nusa Penida Island is located in Nusa Penida District, Klungkung Region, Bali Province. It is belonging to the coral triangle area, the highest marine biodiversity in the world. Based on Decision Letter from Ministry of Marine and Fishery number 24/2014 about Nusa Penida Marine Conservation Area in Klungkung Region, Nusa Penida marine area was designated as Marine Tourism Park. Most of coastal communities in Nusa Penida are seaweed farmer. Marine tourism activity has significant impact for community’s life. Integrated development is required to be done for its sustainability. The objective of this study is to analyze marine tourism contribution for community’s prosperity in coastal area of Nusa Penida Island. Purposive sampling is chosen to collecting field data trough interview and questionnaire in 30 respondents and analyzed used BPS’s indicator (2011). As much as 90% of coastal community in Nusa Penida is categorized in moderate living condition. Marine tourism activity contributes about 36% of local income, it’s mean that marine tourism activity in Nusa Penida give positive contribution for local communities’ prosperity.

Supporting and Inhibiting Factor of the Management of Marine Conservation Area in Sulawesi

Supporting and Inhibiting Factor of the Management of Marine Conservation Area in Sulawesi

Crab communities (Decapoda: Brachyura) in mangrove and estuaries in the Eastern Part of Lombok Island

Mangroves and estuary ecosystem in East Lombok which are appointed as Local Marine Conservation Areas (Kawasan Konservasi Laut Daerah/KKLD) are Gili Lawang, Gili Sulat, Sambelia and Jerowaru districts. Inventory of aquatic fauna in mangroves and estuaries is one of the important components of the marine conservation program. The objective of this study is to determine crab species composition in mangroves and estuaries of eastern Lombok during the East Lombok KKLD program. Targeted area for this study includes Gili Lawang, Gili Sulat in southern Lombok Island, Sugian in Sambelia, Ekas Beach, Tanjung Luar and Seriwe in Jerowaru, and Kidang in western Jerowaru. The crab was collected at 0 m to 100 m of seashore by digging the burrow. The crab community recorded was analyzed for resulting the Diversity, Evenness and Similarity Index. Ten families with 35 species of crab were found from two ecosystem types, mangrove and estuary. Each location has different diversity of ecosystem and habitat. The highest diversity is recorded in Kidang and Seriwe, while the lowest diversity in Gili Sulat. Species diversity is associated with ecosystem and habitat type diversity. Kidang and Seriwe has the highest ecosystem and habitat diversity, while Gili Sulat has the lowest diversity. In addition, the population of Ocypodidae is accounted as the dominant crab family for which Austruca perplexa is the dominant species.