Major Zoonosis Research Articles

BRUCELLAR UVEITIS IN EASTERN INDIA

Objective: Brucellosis- one of the major zoonotic diseases, still remains an uncontrolled problem, in regions of high endemicity. Ophthalmic brucellosis is not studied and overlooked in most developing countries. Considering the severe outcome of undiagnosed ophthalmic brucellosis, in this paper we made attempts to find out whether this disease still remains a health problem in a South East Asian developing country, where study of this disease is largely neglected. Methods This study was carried out over a one year period from January 2015 to December 2015. Blood samples were collected from clinically confirmed cases of uveitis and they were subjected to five serological and one genus specific molecular investigations, for the detection of Brucella infection.Results Out of 20 uveitis cases, 4 (20%) cases confirmed as brucellar uveitis, by serological tests followed by PCR confirmation. After treatment of brucellosis all the four patients were recovered uneventfully.Conclusion: Brucella infection involving the eye is still a significant problem in South East Asian countries; hence in all uveitis cases in this reason brucellosis should be excluded by available laboratory tests.Government of India (Dept. of Biotechnology the major zoonotic diseases, still remains an uncontrolled problem, in regions of high endemicity. Ophthalmic brucellosis is not studied and overlooked in most developing countries. Considering the severe outcome of undiagnosed ophthalmic brucellosis, in this paper we made attempts to find out whether this disease still remains a health problem in a South East Asian developing country, where study of this disease is largely neglected. Methods This study was carried out over a one year period from January 2015 to December 2015. Blood samples were collected from clinically confirmed cases of uveitis and they were subjected to five serological and one genus specific molecular investigations, for the detection of Brucella infection.Results Out of 20 uveitis cases, 4 (20%) cases confirmed as brucellar uveitis, by serological tests followed by PCR confirmation. After treatment of brucellosis all the four patients were recovered uneventfully.Conclusion: Brucella infection involving the eye is still a significant problem in South East Asian countries; hence in all uveitis cases in this reason brucellosis should be excluded by available laboratory tests.

Diagnosis of Brucella Infection in Sheep and Goat and Evaluation of the associated Practices in Animal Contacts

Brucellosis is major zoonosis that affects health and economy in many parts of the world. Brucellosis remains an uncontrolled problem especially in several regions of high endemicity such as the Mediterranean, Middle East. Transmition of Brucellosis in humans is strongly related to contact with infected animals. Diagnosis of brucellosis is based on microbiological and serological laboratory test. Methodology: A cross-sectional study was conducted between January 2016 to June 2016 to estimate the seroprevalence of brucellosis in the small ruminants. A total of 315 blood samples collected from sheep, goats and human contacts with animals in the age from 15 to 58 yearswere tested by Rose Bengal test. Also, bacteriological examination was done for 171 available milk samples small ruminants (134 sheep and 37 goats), one sample of stomach and visceral content from aborted fetus of goat and five blood samples of human contact with a current history of fever. PCR was employed. Results: The prevalence in human was (16) 15.2% and in small ruminants was (40)19% and the risk of infection was associated with increasing age, assistance in labour, presence of infected animal with brucellosis and who giving their animal males for fertilization other flocks. Conclusion: There were 56 positive Rose Bengal test in sheep, goats and human. All recovered isolates of brucella were B. melitesisbiovar 3 and confirmed by PCR. It is probable that they share the sameorigin of infection. The general public, especially where brucellosis present has to be made aware of the danger to health.

Efficacious and safe dose of praziquantel for the successful treatment of feline reservoir hosts with opisthorchiasis

Opisthorchiasis caused by Opisthorchis viverrini is a major food-borne zoonosis in Greater Mekong sub-region. Even though campaigns discouraging the consumption of raw fish have been launched to public, the disease still remains highly endemic. The unsuccessful eradication of the disease is probably because of the persistence of the parasite in animal reservoir hosts, particularly felids. Praziquantel (PZQ) is the drug of choice for morbidity control of opisthorchiasis in humans and animals. However, there is no specific study on its dosage regimen for feline opisthorchiasis. Thus, the effective treatment dose of PZQ, as well as its adverse effects, was evaluated in O. viverrini infected cats. Twenty-eight infected male and female cats from the endemic area of Khon Kaen and Maha Sarakham Provinces, Thailand were enrolled in this study. Physical, hematological, blood chemical and urine examinations were analyzed, as indicators of health status, on the day before and 30days after treatment. Intensity of the infections was determined by the formalin-ethyl acetate sedimentation technique. Cats were equally allotted into the low infection group of 14 cats with egg count per gram of feces (EPG) <300 and the high infection group of 14 cats with EPG higher than 300. Cats in each group were equally divided into two subgroups of 7 cats; thus, there were two low infection subgroups (L1 and L2 subgroups) and two high infection subgroups (H1 and H2 subgroups). A single dose of 25mg/kg PZQ was orally administered to each cat in the L1 and H1 subgroups and a single oral dose of 40mg/kg PZQ was administered to the L2 and H2 subgroups. Complete clearance of O. viverrini eggs was found in all cats in the L1, L2 and H2 subgroups; thus, the cure rate (CR) and egg reduction rate (ERR) were 100%. However, partial clearance was observed in two cats with high EPG (1502 and 1518) in the H1 subgroup, which received 25mg/kg PZQ. Regards, CR and ERR for these two animals was 71.4 and 99.5%. No significant difference among the 4 subgroups was seen. Almost all hematological, blood chemical and urinalysis data were within normal ranges, except for the eosinophilia and an increase of alanine aminotransferase (ALT). Hookworm infection seen in all cats would cause eosinophilia. As for drug safety, there was no side effect observed in any cats. In conclusion, this study suggested that 40mg/kg PZQ is a highly effective and safe dosage for the treatment of feline reservoir hosts of human opisthorchiasis.

BrucellaBase: Genome information resource

Brucella sp. causes a major zoonotic disease, brucellosis. Brucella belongs to the family Brucellaceae under the order Rhizobiales of Alphaproteobacteria. We present BrucellaBase, a web-based platform, providing features of a genome database together with unique analysis tools. We have developed a web version of the multilocus sequence typing (MLST) (Whatmore et al., 2007) and phylogenetic analysis of Brucella spp. BrucellaBase currently contains genome data of 510 Brucella strains along with the user interfaces for BLAST, VFDB, CARD, pairwise genome alignment and MLST typing. Availability of these tools will enable the researchers interested in Brucella to get meaningful information from Brucella genome sequences. BrucellaBase will regularly be updated with new genome sequences, new features along with improvements in genome annotations. BrucellaBase is available online at http://www.dbtbrucellosis.in/brucellabase.html or http://59.99.226.203/brucellabase/homepage.html.

Antigen based detection of cystic echinococcosis in buffaloes using ELISA and Dot-EIA.

Cystic echinococcosis is caused by the larval stage of the dog tapeworm, Echinococcus granulosus. The disease is recognized as one of the world's major zoonoses affecting human beings and domestic animals apart from its economic and public health importance. Development of the cysts in the intermediate host such as buffaloes occurs in the lungs, liver and other organs. In this study, detection of circulating antigen in the diagnosis of cystic echinococcosis in buffaloes was done using enzyme linked immunosorbent assay and Dot-Enzyme immunoassay (Dot-EIA). The sensitivity and specificity were determined as 89 and 92% respectively, whereas those of Dot-EIA were determined as 94 and 96%.

Mapping human risk of infection with Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, the agent of Lyme borreliosis, in a periurban forest in France

Lyme borreliosis is a major zoonosis in Europe, with estimates of over 26,000 cases per year in France alone. The etiological agents are spirochete bacteria that belong to the Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (s. l.) complex and are transmitted by hard ticks among a large range of vertebrate hosts. In Europe, the tick Ixodes ricinus is the main vector. In the absence of a vaccine and given the current difficulties to diagnose and treat chronic Lyme syndromes, there is urgent need for prevention. In this context, accurate information on the spatial patterns of risk of exposure to ticks is of prime importance for public health. The objective of our study was to provide a snapshot map of the risk of human infection with B. burgdorferi s. l. pathogens in a periurban forest at a high resolution, and to analyze the factors that contribute to variation in this risk. Field monitoring took place over three weeks in May 2011 in the suburban Sénart forest (3,200ha; southeast of Paris), which receives over 3 million people annually. We sampled ticks over the entire forest area (from 220 forest stands with a total area of 35,200m2) and quantified the density of questing nymphs (DON), the prevalence of infection among nymphs (NIP), and the density of infected nymphs (DIN), which is the most important predictor of the human risk of Lyme borreliosis. For each of these response variables, we explored the relative roles of weather (saturation deficit), hosts (abundance indices of ungulates and Tamias sibiricus, an introduced rodent species), vegetation and forest cover, superficial soil composition, and the distance to forest roads. In total, 19,546 questing nymphs were collected and the presence of B. burgdorferi s. l. was tested in 3,903 nymphs by qPCR. The mean DON was 5.6 nymphs per 10m2 (standard deviation=10.4) with an average NIP of 10.1% (standard deviation=0.11). The highest DIN was 8.9 infected nymphs per 10m2, with a mean of 0.59 (standard deviation=0.6). Our mapping and modeling revealed a strong heterogeneity of risk within the forest. The highest risk was found in the eastern part of the forest and localized patches in the northwestern part. Lyme borreliosis risk was positively associated with stands of deciduous trees (mainly oaks) and roe deer abundance. Contrary to expectations, DIN actually increased with distance from the point of introduction of T. sibiricus (i.e., DIN was higher in areas with potentially lower abundances of T. sibiricus). Thus, despite the fact that T. sibiricus is an important reservoir host for B. burgdorferi s. l., our study found that other explanatory factors played a more important role in determining the density of infected ticks. Precise mapping of the risk of exposure to Lyme borreliosis in a highly visited forest represents an important tool for targeting prevention and control measures, as well as making the general public and local health officials aware of the risks.

Oak acorn crop and Google search volume predict Lyme disease risk in temperate Europe

Lyme disease is a major zoonosis in the northern hemisphere. It is caused by the spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi, transmitted by ticks (genus Ixodes), and the abundance of infected tick nymphs determines the risk of the disease in humans. In eastern USA, fluctuations in oak (Quercus spp.) acorn production (including mast seeding) determine rodent abundance, which has been linked with Lyme borreliosis risk in humans. However, the predictive power of masting on Lyme disease risk in other systems has never been tested. We used a combination of field and Internet data to trace the ecological chain reaction that links acorn production by oaks and Lyme borreliosis risk in European forests. We found a positive relationship between oak acorn production (Q. robur and Q. petraea) in year T and the number of Lyme borreliosis incidences in year T+2. Acorn production was also positively correlated with Google search volume for the terms “tick” and “Lyme disease” two years later. Our results suggest that acorn production influences tick population, leading to fluctuations in the intensity of interactions between humans and ticks that can be seen in Google search dynamics. Thus, mast seeding together with the volume of specific Internet web searches appears to be a promising tool that could be used to alert public.

Study on Assessment of Community Awareness towards Common Zoonotic Diseases in and Around Asella, Eastern Arsi Zone, Ethiopia.

A cross-sectional questionnaire survey was conducted on 500 purposively selected farmers in and around Asella town, Oromia Regional State, of Ethiopia to assess their awareness and practices on the five major zoonotic diseases. About 91.2% of respondents heard about zoonotic diseases. Among five major zoonotic disease, 83.4% respondents heard about rabies, 61.6% tuberculosis, 33.2% taeniasis, 22.2% anthrax and 21.6% heard about brucellosis. 93.2% responded that disease could transmit from animal to human while only 26.0% responded that disease could transmit from human to animal. Majority responded inhalation (37.6%), ingestion (55.8%), contact (25.6%), dog bite (81.6%) and vector born (15.6%) as mode of transmission. Respondents were aware about the animals that transmits disease to human like pets (dogs and cats) (82.2%), sheep and goat (6.4%), equines (1.4%), pigs (1.0%), poultry (0.6%) and more than one livestock (27.6%). 85.8% responded that disease could be acquired from contaminated or diseased animal food products among which meat (60.4%) and milk (30.8%) were reported most by the respondents. 77.0% and 87.0% respondents of the study area were consuming raw meat and milk respectively. Among respondents, 59.0% provided health care of their livestock when animals were sick (28.2%) or during programmed health care (23.4%) and governmental order to treat and vaccinate (15.2%).

First Report ofSalmonellaSerotype Tilene Infection in Korea

Salmonellosis is a common foodand water-borne disease and is also a major zoonosis. Currently, the isolation of rare Salmonella serotypes is increasing every year in Korea. Among them, the Salmonella serotype Tilene was first isolated from two people who visited a hospital located in Andong-si in 2013. Clinical symptoms were weak or non-existent. There was no clear epidemiological connection between the two cases. However, it was assumed that both were independently exposed to a single infectious agent. Perhaps due to their geographical proximity, molecular epidemiological analysis showed the same result between the isolated strains. This serotype has increasingly reported an association with hedgehogs. Recently, the importation of exotic animals, including hedgehogs, as pets has been gradually increasing. Thus, it is recommended that high-risk groups avoid contact with exotic pets. (Ann Clin Microbiol 2016;19: 24-27)

The speed and metabolic cost of digesting a blood meal depends on temperature in a major disease vector.

The energetics of processing a meal is crucial for understanding energy budgets of animals in the wild. Given that digestion and its associated costs may be dependent on environmental conditions, it is necessary to obtain a better understanding of these costs under diverse conditions and identify resulting behavioural or physiological trade-offs. This study examines the speed and metabolic costs - in cumulative, absolute and relative energetic terms - of processing a bloodmeal for a major zoonotic disease vector, the tsetse fly Glossina brevipalpis, across a range of ecologically relevant temperatures (25, 30 and 35°C). Respirometry showed that flies used less energy digesting meals faster at higher temperatures but that their starvation tolerance was reduced, supporting the prediction that warmer temperatures are optimal for bloodmeal digestion while cooler temperatures should be preferred for unfed or post-absorptive flies. (13)C-Breath testing revealed that the flies oxidized dietary glucose and amino acids within the first couple of hours of feeding and overall oxidized more dietary nutrients at the cooler temperatures, supporting the premise that warmer digestion temperatures are preferred because they maximize speed and minimize costs. An independent test of these predictions using a thermal gradient confirmed that recently fed flies selected warmer temperatures and then selected cooler temperatures as they became post-absorptive, presumably to maximize starvation resistance. Collectively these results suggest there are at least two thermal optima in a given population at any time and flies switch dynamically between optima throughout feeding cycles.

Dextran sulfate sodium upregulates MAPK signaling for the uptake and subsequent intracellular survival of Brucella abortus in murine macrophages

Brucellosis is one of the major zoonoses worldwide that inflicts important health problems in animal and human. Here, we demonstrated that dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) significantly increased adhesion of Brucella (B.) abortus in murine macrophages compared to untreated cells. Even without infection, Brucella uptake into macrophages increased and F-actin reorganization was induced compared with untreated cells. Furthermore, DSS increased the phosphorylation of MAPKs (ERK1/2 and p38α) in Brucella-infected, DSS-treated cells compared with the control cells. Lastly, DSS markedly increased the intracellular survival of Brucella abortus in macrophages by up to 48 h. These results suggest that DSS enhanced the adhesion and phagocytosis of B. abortus into murine macrophages by stimulating the MAPK signaling proteins phospho-ERK1/2 and p38α and that DSS increased the intracellular survival of B. abortus by inhibiting colocalization of Brucella-containing vacuoles (BCVs) with the late endosome marker LAMP-1. This study emphasizes the enhancement of the phagocytic and intracellular modulatory effects of DSS, which may suppress the innate immune system and contribute to prolonged Brucella survival and chronic infection.

A serological survey on Leptospiral infection in companion rabbits referred to Veterinary Hospital of Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz

Leptospirosis is one of the major zoonotic diseases worldwide. This disease is caused by various serovars of Leptospira interrogans sensu lato infection. Although the rabbits are known to be one of the reservoirs and transmission sources of leptospirosis, but the status of this infection in rabbits in Iran remains unknown, so this survey was conducted to evaluate the seroprevalence of leptospiral infection in companion rabbits in Ahvaz district from September 2010 to December 2013. Blood samples were taken from 68 companion rabbits, referred to veterinary hospital of shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz. Sera were screened for antibodies against serovars of Canicola , Icterohaemorrhagiae , Grippotyphosa , Ballum , Hardjo, Pomona, Australis and Tarassovi using the microscopic agglutination test (MAT). From a total of 68 rabbits, 19 (27.94%) were serologically positive for the serovars of L. Icterohaemorrhagiae , Tarassovi, Grippotyphosa , Hardjo, Pomona and Australis . The positive titers were detected between 1:100 to 1:200 dilutions. The predominant titers were directed against serovars of Icterohaemorrhagiae (36.84%; 7 out of 19) and Tarassovi (36.84%; 7 out of 19) and followed by Hardjo (21.05%; 4 out of 19), Australis (10.53%; 2 out of 19), Pomona (5.26%; 1 out of 19) and grippotyphosa (5.26%; 1 out of 19). Antibodies against more than one serovar (mixed infections) were detected in three samples (as Pomona+Hardjo and Icterohaemorrhagiae+ Tarassovi ). The prevalence was significantly higher in adult rabbits above 3 years (37.04%; 10 out of 27) and between 1-3 years (36.36%; 8 out of 22) compared with rabbits less than 1 years (5.26%; 1 out of 19) (P 0.05). This survey indicated that serovars of L. Icterohaemorrhagiae and Tarassovi were predominant in the rabbits of this area and can be a source of infection for humans. The obtained results provide useful information on the epidemiology of leptospirosis in this species, which has not been previously investigated.

Detection of Brucella abortus DNA in aborted goats and sheep in Egypt by real-time PCR.

BackgroundBrucellosis is a major zoonoses affects wide range of domesticated as well as wild animals. Despite the eradication program of brucellosis in Egypt, the disease is still endemic among cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats, and camels.ResultsIn the present study, abortion occurred naturally among 25 animals (10 cows, 5 buffaloes, 9 Egyptian Baladi goats and 1 ewe) shared the same pasture were investigated by real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). DNA of Brucella (B.) abortus was detected in serum of goats and sheep which has aborted recently by species-specific RT-PCR. The results suggest cross-species infection of B. abortus from cattle to non-preferred hosts raised in close contact.ConclusionThis article will renew our knowledge about the Brucella agent causing abortion in small ruminants in Egypt. Information provided in this study is important for surveillance program, because eradication programs and vaccination strategies may have to be adapted accordingly.

Recent advances in canine leptospirosis: focus on vaccine development.

Leptospirosis is a global infection of humans and animals caused by pathogenic Leptospira spp. Leptospirosis is a major zoonosis, with infection acquired from wild and domestic animals. It is also a significant cause of morbidity, mortality, and economic loss in production and companion animals. Leptospirosis in dogs is prevalent worldwide and as well as a cause of canine disease, it presents a zoonotic risk to human contacts. Canine leptospirosis does not differ greatly from the syndromes seen in other animal species, with hepatic, renal, and pulmonary involvement being the main manifestations. While the pathogenesis of disease is well documented at the whole animal level, the cellular and molecular basis remains obscure. Killed, whole-cell bacterin vaccines are licensed worldwide and have not changed greatly over the past several decades. Vaccine-induced immunity is restricted to serologically related serovars and is generally short-lived, necessitating annual revaccination. The appearance of new serovars as causes of canine leptospirosis requires constant epidemiological surveillance and tailoring of vaccines to cover emerging serovars. At the present time, there is no realistic prospect of alternative, non-bacterin vaccines in the foreseeable future.

Admixture in Humans of Two Divergent Plasmodium knowlesi Populations Associated with Different Macaque Host Species.

Human malaria parasite species were originally acquired from other primate hosts and subsequently became endemic, then spread throughout large parts of the world. A major zoonosis is now occurring with Plasmodium knowlesi from macaques in Southeast Asia, with a recent acceleration in numbers of reported cases particularly in Malaysia. To investigate the parasite population genetics, we developed sensitive and species-specific microsatellite genotyping protocols and applied these to analysis of samples from 10 sites covering a range of >1,600 km within which most cases have occurred. Genotypic analyses of 599 P. knowlesi infections (552 in humans and 47 in wild macaques) at 10 highly polymorphic loci provide radical new insights on the emergence. Parasites from sympatric long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) and pig-tailed macaques (M. nemestrina) were very highly differentiated (FST = 0.22, and K-means clustering confirmed two host-associated subpopulations). Approximately two thirds of human P. knowlesi infections were of the long-tailed macaque type (Cluster 1), and one third were of the pig-tailed-macaque type (Cluster 2), with relative proportions varying across the different sites. Among the samples from humans, there was significant indication of genetic isolation by geographical distance overall and within Cluster 1 alone. Across the different sites, the level of multi-locus linkage disequilibrium correlated with the degree of local admixture of the two different clusters. The widespread occurrence of both types of P. knowlesi in humans enhances the potential for parasite adaptation in this zoonotic system.

Extent of Mycobacterium bovis transmission among animals of dairy and beef cattle and deer farms in South Korea determined by variable-number tandem repeats typing

Identifying sources of Mycobacterium bovis transmission would be essential for establishing effective control programs of bovine tuberculosis (TB), a major zoonosis threatening human health worldwide. As an effort to determine the extent of M. bovis transmission among dairy and beef cattle and deer populations, a mycobacterial interspersed repetitive units (MIRU)-variable-number tandem repeats (VNTR) typing method was employed for analysis of 131 M. bovis isolates from 59 Holstein dairy cattle, 39 Korean beef cattle, and 33 deer. Of 31 MIRU-VNTR markers, 15 showed allelic diversity. The most discriminatory locus for M. bovis isolates was VNTR 3336 (h=0.59) followed by QUB 26, MIRU 31, VNTR 2401, and VNTR 3171 which showed high discriminatory power (h=0.43). The combined VNTR loci had an allelic diversity of 0.83. On the basis of the VNTR profiles of 30 VNTR loci, 24 genotypes were identified, and two genotypes were highly prevalent among all M. bovis isolates (33.6% and 19.1%, respectively), thus indicating that more than 50% of the isolates shared common molecular characteristics. Six additional genotypes were common in 2 of the 3 animal species, suggesting a wide interspecies transmission of M. bovis. This study thus demonstrates that MIRU-VNTR typing is useful in differentiation of M. bovis isolates and that M. bovis transmission occurs frequently among farmed animal species, highlighting the importance of bovine TB control programs in different animal species which are often raised in the same villages.

Psitacosis y salmonelosis: zoonosis que involucran a las aves

Zoonosis se refiere a enfermedades infecciosas de animales que se pueden transmitir a los humanos. Los agentes infecciosos pueden ser protozoarios, hongos, bacterias, clamidias, virus o priones. Las aves representan un riesgo alto de adquirir una enfermedad de este tipo, no solamente por estar en contacto con ellas, sino por consumir alimentos derivados de las mismas. Dos las zoonosis más importantes que involucran a la aves son la psitacosis y salmonelosis. La psitacosis es producida por Chlamydophila psittaci. Puede causar desde una leve neumonía hasta la muerte del animal; se transmite al humano a través de la inhalación del microorganismo, produciendo un cuadro clínico caracterizado por neumonía y manifestaciones generales. Las poblaciones con mayor riesgo de adquirir esta zoonosis son veterinarios, criadores de aves y toda persona en contacto con aves infectadas. La salmonelosis es causada por una gran cantidad de especies de Salmonella. La transmisión se da por el consumo de alimentos contaminados con la bacteria tales como el huevo y la carne. La diarrea, la fiebre y los calambres estomacales severos son síntomas comunes, en el caso de salmonelosis. El objetivo de este artículo se centra en revisar los aspectos generales de las enfermedades y el proceso de transmisión a los humanos.

Brucellosis: An Economically Important Infection

Brucellosis is one of the world’s major zoonosis, caused by bacteria of the genus Brucella. The world’s most widespread zoonosis affects cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, and other animals, leading to abortion, infertility, and low milk yields. Humans acquire brucellosis from direct contact with livestock or from drinking unpasteurized milk. Brucella spp. are considered as the most common laboratory-acquired pathogens. Several serological tests have been widely used for diagnosis of Brucella such are Rose Bengal plate test (RBPT), Standard tube agglutination test (STAT), complement fixation test (CFT), enzyme linked immunosorbant assay (ELISA). Besides these, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) based identification and typing, fluorescence polarization assay (FPA) are also important diagnostic tools. The worldwide economic losses due to brucellosis are extensive. Although a number of successful vaccines are being used for immunization of animals still no satisfactory vaccine against human brucellosis is available. This review shows world literature and its impact to the history, epidemiology, virulence, diagnosis along with the control measures adopted in all over the world scenario including Indian.

Knowledge, Attitude and Practice of Community Towards Zoonotic Importance of &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;Toxoplasma&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt; Infection in Central Afar Region, North East Ethiopia

Toxoplasmosis is one of the major global zoonotic diseases which have a great impact on human health with more serious outcomes in immunocompromised and pregnant women. A cross-sectional study was carried out to assess the knowledge, attitude and practice of the community towards zoonotic importance of the disease in central Afar region of Northeast Ethiopia using structured questionnaire, key informants interview and focal group discussion. According to the logistic regression analysis of pregnant women’s awareness on zoonotic <i>Toxoplasma</i> infection, literacy was found statistically significant (P<0.05) in association with awareness of the pregnant women about the disease. According to the respondents’ answers on the general knowledge of toxoplasmosis, majority of these pregnant women have no knowledge or not sure about this parasitic infection. Most of the respondent pregnant women were not sure about the risk factors, symptoms, and timing of infection of toxoplasmosis. However, they routinely practice primary preventive behaviors, particularly good hygienic condition that can prevent them from <i>Toxoplasma</i> infection but this is due to their native knowledge and thinking that ensuring general and personal hygiene can prevent all types of infection. During the study, 24 animal health assistants were participated and almost all had knowledge on zoonotic <i>Toxoplasma</i> infection, transmission, treatment, control and prevention. However, all of them had never diagnosed the disease in animals. Moreover, out of the 68 medical professionals included in the study, only 23 (33.8%) had knowledge on zoonotic <i>Toxoplasma</i> infection which is lower than expected when compared with importance of the disease in human health particularly pregnant women and children. This study showed that there is knowledge gap about the disease and its zoonotic importance. Therefore, refreshing training to medical professionals including health extension workers, imparting health education in one health approach to the community at large and pregnant women in particular and strengthening the diagnostic facility and advising pregnant women to regularly check for toxoplasma infection is mandatory.

Phylogeography of the current rabies viruses in Indonesia.

Rabies is a major fatal zoonotic disease in Indonesia. This study was conducted to determine the recent dynamics of rabies virus (RABV) in various areas and animal species throughout Indonesia. A total of 27 brain samples collected from rabid animals of various species in Bali, Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Java, and Flores in 2008 to 2010 were investigated. The cDNA of the nucleoprotein gene from each sample was generated and amplified by one-step reverse transcription-PCR, after which the products were sequenced and analyzed. The symmetric substitution model of a Bayesian stochastic search variable selection extension of the discrete phylogeographic model of the social network was applied in BEAST ver. 1.7.5 software. The spatial dispersal was visualized in Cartographica using Spatial Phylogenetic Reconstruction of Evolutionary Dynamics. We demonstrated inter-island introduction and reintroduction, and dog was found to be the only source of infection of other animals. Ancestors of Indonesian RABVs originated in Java and its descendants were transmitted to Kalimantan, then further to Sumatra, Flores, and Bali. The Flores descendent was subsequently transmitted to Sulawesi and back to Kalimantan. The viruses found in various animal species were transmitted by the dog.