Major Source Of Air Pollution Research Articles

The association between different types of cooking fuels and common health problems: north India region

Background: The fuel used for cooking is a major source of indoor air pollution because of inefficient combustion and inadequate ventilation. This study was conducted to see if there is any association between the type of cooking fuel and common health problems in light of inadequate ventilation. Methods: This was a cross-sectional study; 688 subjects were selected randomly from various sectors and the outlying areas of Surajkund. The impact of indoor air pollution on health was assessed by questionnaires, general physical examination, and pulmonary function testing. Results: One of the key findings of the study has been the implication of LPG, touted as a safe, non-polluting fuel with a definite negative impact on health. There was significantly more breathlessness experienced by LPG users as opposed to the users of wood and cow dung. Though the prevalence of fever in both groups was similar, chest pain, burning of eyes, and fatigue were reported by wood and cow dung users much more frequently. The pulmonary function test showed restrictive pathology in cow dung and wood users, whereas obstructive pathology in LPG users. Conclusions: LPG is considered “clean” fuel because it does not produce visible emissions. However, improper burner design, blocking and clogging of the flue vent, and insufficient combustion air result in improper combustion and the emission of aldehydes, CO, hydrocarbons, and other organics. It would be folly to believe that LPG is harmless. Even a harmless material may become harmful if used inappropriately.

Incentives, penalties, and rural air pollution: Evidence from satellite data

I test the role of economic incentives and command and control in reducing agricultural fires, a major source of air pollution in most rural regions across the world caused by burning crop residues after harvest. To tackle data shortage, I use high-resolution satellite data to construct a fine measure of agricultural fires as well as other geographic characteristics at 1 km × 1 km resolution for China. Using the staggered arrival of biomass power plants, which purchase crop residues as production inputs from nearby areas, as a shock to economic incentives, I find a more than 30% drop in agricultural fires in the vicinity of a plant after its opening relative to areas farther away. Such drop cannot be explained by structural transformation, migration, or enhanced regulation near the plant, and is consistent with an incentive-based explanation. I then examine the effectiveness of a command and control policy that bans agricultural fires within 15 km of airports. Using a spatial regression discontinuity design, I find no evidence that such policy works.

Forecasting environmental and social benefits of adopting cleaner technologies in Indian brick manufacturing industry

Embodied carbon of new buildings can be effectively reduced by improving the manufacturing processes for energy intensive raw materials such as bricks and cement. Indian brick manufacturing industry is a major source of air pollution and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This sector uses coal as a primary fuel in nearly 150,000 brick kilns, majority of which are based on energy in-efficient, fixed chimney bull-trench kiln (FCBTK) technology. Annually, the brick making in India consumes nearly 60 million tons of coal, produces almost 250 billion bricks and emits more than 150 million tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other GHG emissions. The pollutants produced include carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur oxides (SOx), nitrogen oxides (NOx), particulate matter (PM), methane (CH4), non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOC). This study provides the first comprehensive long-term (2020–2050) assessment of Indian brick kiln sector by forecasting the annual fuel demand, GHG emissions, pollutants formations and annual externality cost borne by the community. A Low Emissions Analysis Platform (LEAP) software based bottom-up simulation model has been developed for performing the assessment. Business as usual (BAU) and four alternative scenarios comprising of cleaner kiln technologies are evaluated. These technologies include zig zag kiln (ZZK), vertical shaft brick kiln (VSBK) and tunnel kiln (TK). Values for emission factors for pollutants, energy intensities of kilns, and social costs of pollutants are taken from the literature. Our results show that VSBK is the most energy efficient and environmentally friendly technology, closely followed by ZZK. For the year 2050, ZZK can save up to 16 billion dollars in externality costs and reduce coal demand by approximately 260 million tons. ZZK is not only a cleaner technology, but also has significant resemblance with conventional FCBTK technology which can be easily retrofitted to ZZK. The government and other stakeholders should promote ZZK adoption and develop suitable policy and financial instruments to address barriers to transition.

Reducing Environmental Impact of Coal-Fired Power Plants by Building an Indoor Coal Storage: An Economic Analysis

Coal-fired power plants have been identified as one of the major sources of air pollutants in the power sector. Most coal-fired power stations have large open-air coal stockpiles, which lead to a considerable amount of fugitive dust. The construction of an indoor coal storage is known to control coal dust; however, it requires significant upfront capital. Certain power utilities, including those in South Korea, are currently considering or are required to build indoor coal storages. This study analyzed the benefit and economic feasibility of indoor coal storages in coal-fired power stations. A contingent valuation method was used to elicit people’s willingness to pay for the construction of new indoor coal storages. The results showed that, on average, a South Korean household was willing to pay KRW 59,242 (USD 53.97) in a lump-sum payment toward the construction of indoor coal storages at six coal-fired power stations (total storage capacity of 5.47 million tons of coal, with a site area of 1.15 million m2). The resulting benefit–cost ratio of the project was calculated to be 0.52, which was not economically feasible. Thus, it is recommended that the South Korean government should focus on other cost-effective projects to improve air quality.

Optimizing particulate matter sensor by using piezoresistive microcantilever for volatile organic compounds applications

Pollution introduces harmful substances into the natural environment, resulting in environmental alterations. Industries are a major source of air pollution because of many power plants, chamber processes, cleaning operations, and material burning processes. Volatile organic compounds and other contaminants are discharged into the atmosphere. Sensor fusion technology-based air pollution has been proposed in this study to meet the national air quality criteria, and several nations have implemented emission monitoring systems. It is common knowledge that PM2.5 sensors can be found in air purifiers, in the immediate surroundings, and in everyday lives. PM2.5 particles can be more accurately detected by increasing the sensitivity to smaller particles and optimizing the flow of particles into the detecting region. The sensors’ responsiveness and sensitivity are excellent based on the testing results. A low-cost monitoring system can benefit from this technology since it may be used to give data on the levels of nitrogen, particulate matter, and inorganic nitrates.

Characterization of organic release kinetics in particleboard using a dual model fitting methodology.

In modern society, people spend most of their time indoors engaging in their work and home life. However, indoor air pollution is a potential risk to health, and it is associated with many diseases. Wooden furniture, as the most popular indoor furniture used in modern times, is a major source of indoor air pollution, so it has become imperative to explore the composition and release kinetics characteristics of toxic and hazardous substances from wood-based panels. In this study, thermal desorption-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (TD-GC-MS) was used to detect the release of organic compounds from wood panels, and determine the release kinetics of the organic compounds dimethyl acetal, phenol, toluene and decanoic acid via bi-exponential and mass transfer models to provide a theoretical basis for targeted pollution prevention and control. In this project, a climate chamber method was used to conduct a 120 h continuous sampling of the release concentration of compounds from wood panels. The TD-GC-MS method was used to analyze the sampling tubes, and the concentration-time data were fitted to the bi-exponential and mass transfer models. The emission factor equation was obtained from the bi-exponential model. The critical physical parameters, such as the initial internal release concentration C0, internal diffusion rate Dm, and solid-phase/gas-phase partition coefficient K, were obtained from the mass transfer model. Finally, it was found that dimethyl acetal and toluene were easily and rapidly released into the air, while phenol and decanoic acid were slowly released into the ambient air. The two sets of release kinetics characteristics provide an essential theoretical basis for targeted pollution prevention and control, as well as a methodological path for studying the release kinetics of different toxic and hazardous substances.

AIR POLLUTION IN SKOPJE: PRACTICE AND AWARENESS IN THE SCOPE OF HOUSEHOLD HEATING

Air pollution is a concern which poses threat to human health and likewise greatly impacts the ecosystem and the environment. By its broader definition, the air pollution is described as increase in the rate of harmful gases and particles in the atmosphere. Given that the city of Skopje is on the top of the list of most polluted cities in Europe the aim of this study is to analyze the air pollution in Skopje, particularly focusing the attention on the household heating as one of the major sources of ambient air pollution in the city. A survey on 242 households was conducted in order to obtain information about the ways of residential heating and the willingness of households to use more environmentally friendly heating technologies. The survey was carried out on the territory of the city of Skopje, as it is the most polluted city in the country. The governmental measures for air pollution abatement in Skopje were reviewed as well. The results show that most of the households although aware about the emission of harmful particles into air when combusting firewood in old traditional stoves, they still use firewood as it is the cheapest mode of heating. The previous is of particular importance and decisive for the low-income households. It was also observed that the respondents were familiar with the possibility for using wood pellets, as more environmentally heating mode, but there was a lack of information concerning the possibility of governmental subsidizing for replacement of the existing firewood with more modern wood pellets system. The households that have already started to use wood pellets instead firewood, have increased monthly costs (10 - 15%), but nevertheless they still recommend the use of pellets and pellet stoves due to the efficiency of heating, maintenance, cleanliness, and less pollution of air on the long run. Summarizing, the choice of heating with firewood is more due to the lower monthly incomes and rational cost planning of the households, and less to the lack of awareness of citizens for utilizing more efficient and more environmentally friendly heating technologies.

Identifying the fundamental drives behind the 10-year evolution of northern China's rural household energy and emission: Implications for 2030 and beyond

Rural household energy, particularly solid fuels, in northern China is thought to be a major source of air pollution. However, there is no complete, systematic, and reliable dataset for northern China's rural areas owing to the diversity of energy types used and the difficulty in acquiring data, particularly for solid fuels. Here we assessed existing progress in estimating solid fuels and proposed a practical route for deriving the information on rural household energy consumption and structure in northern China spanning 2010–2020, with important findings. (i) In 2010, the total rural household energy consumption for northern China was 287.51 million tons standard coal equivalent (TCE), while for 2020, it decreased to 205.14 million TCE, showing a 29 % decrease and an annual down 3.3 % averagely. Among a number of underlying reasons, China's urbanization process, which made the rural population shrink year by year, was primarily responsible. (ii) The share of clean energy in northern rural areas began at 4.2 % in 2010 and grew to 15.6 % in 2020, displaying a sustained improvement in energy structure. Particularly in the second 5 years, the clean energy share of policy priority areas grew by 20.0 percentage points (from 15.0 % in 2010 to 35.0 % in 2020), which is more than 18 percentage points higher than the growth of non-priority areas (from 2.9 % in 2010 to 4.5 % in 2020). Clean air policy, particularly the “two replacements” (replace coal with gas and electricity), in priority areas played a core role in changing the energy structure. (iii) Although both air pollutants and CO2 are predicted to decrease in 2030, there is a large gap between expected 2030 emissions and hoped 2060 carbon neutrality in northern rural households. It is thus necessary to gradually boost the share of green electricity (non-fossil) and to reverse the trend of “biomass fuel curtailment” in rural residential sector. This calls for the improvement in biomass style (e.g., biomass pellets) and in stove efficiency (e.g., complete combustion).

Comparing the Cost per Mile of Electric Vehicles and Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles in Ghana

Reducing ambient air pollution could potentially prevent 1790 deaths a year in Accra alone. Vehicular emissions are a major source of air pollution, especially (PM)2.5, and a transition to battery electric vehicles (BEVs) is considered a solution to this. This paper estimates the cost per mile of electric vehicles compared with internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) based on the retail price, fuel/energy, depreciation, maintenance, insurance, taxes, and charging infrastructure in Ghana for 10 years. The 10-year costs per mile of the BEV are less than those of the ICEV by 9.4%–24%. The advantage is only after the seventh year, while before this the BEVs were more expensive to own. Total import tax contributes up to 20% of the BEV cost per mile. It costs 83% less to charge a BEV for a mile compared to fueling an ICEV. A significant rise in electricity tariffs is very likely to negatively affect the transition to e-mobility. We found the electricity tariff to be the most sensitive to the cost per mile of the BEV because, for every US$1 price increase in the cost per kWh, the cost per mile of the BEV increased by US$ 0.315. The results also showed that a transition to e-mobility could reduce CO2 emissions from transportation by 72%, NO x emissions by 79%, volatile organic compounds by 99%, and particulate matter by 56%. Future policy should target the removal of import tax on BEVs and their parts, especially high-voltage batteries.

Interaction between two car models with application to pollutant dispersion

Nowadays, air quality monitoring is a major concern. Among pollutants, exhaust UltraFine Particles (UFP) have a harmful effect on health due to their small size and to their ability to penetrate the bloodstream, the respiratory system, the brain as well as the placental barrier. Out of the industrial emissions, road traffic is a major source of air pollution. UFP emitted from the cars can infiltrate the car cabin through leakages and ventilation system leading to poor air quality in the passenger compartment. Improving the knowledge regarding the dispersion of exhaust UFP in the wake of a car considering road traffic is then mandatory. In this paper, the dispersion of UFP is studied in the wake of a leading vehicle (LV) followed by a second one. Two rear slant angles (φ) for LV and 6 inter-vehicle distances are considered. Velocities and UFP concentrations are collected in a wind tunnel. The influence of the rear slant angle of the leading vehicle is discussed on both wake dynamics and concentration fields. The results indicate that a critical inter-vehicle distance can be identified above which the recirculation region remains unchanged. Considering the concentration fields, for a leading vehicle with φ=0°, the large recirculation region tends to entrap the particles and to homogenize the particle mixing. For φ=25°, the attachment of the flow in the rear slant angle has a strong impact on the particle dispersion. It leads to a small recirculation region, which entraps particles leading to a non-homogeneous mixing. The Particle Concentration fields in Number (PNC) reveal high levels in the exhaust tailpipe plane that can contribute to lower PNC levels in the car cabin. Comparisons with previous studies are discussed and possible recommendations are suggested.

In-Depth Study of PM2.5 and PM10 Concentrations over a 12-Year Period and their Elemental Composition in the Lignite Center of Western Macedonia, Greece

Western Macedonia, located in North-western Greece, is largely dominated by lignite mining and lignite-fired power plants, which are a significant part of the country’s economy. However, the electricity generation and the related activities are among the greatest sources of air pollutants. In this study, we focus on the air quality of Western Macedonia based on measurements of Particulate Matter (PM2.5 and PM10) over a 12-year period (from 2010 to 2021) and a sampling of PM-bound trace elements over the course of 12 months (from December 2017 to November 2018). The analysis revealed an overall decrease of PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations over the study period. In general, the concentrations of PM exhibited seasonality patterns associated with the weather conditions and the local sources of air pollutants. These major sources of air pollution are the lignite mining processes, the emissions from the lignite-fired power plants, and the anthropogenic emissions from the biomass burning and heating systems. In addition, the analysis of the PM-bound trace elements revealed some differences; the elemental profiles of both PM2.5 and PM10 were quite similar, while the most abundant elements (Ca and Si) indicate that the main emission sources were related with the mining activities and the coal combustion.

Commentary] #CapTheCrossBronx: Grassroots Advocacy & Public Health Research to Secure Federal Funding for Reimagining the Cross Bronx Expressway (Policy & Practice Commentary)

The Cross Bronx Expressway is perhaps one of the greatest threats to the health of Bronx residents today. It is a major source of air pollution, noise pollution, and economic malaise. These threats can be mitigated with deck parks over the expressway. While deck parks are not a new idea, it was not until there was hard data on the damage that the expressway was doing to the health and economic well-being of local residents that policymakers had a reason to listen. The Cross Bronx Expressway presents a rare example of clear-cut translation of quantitative research into social policy. In this commentary, we discuss how a study on the cost-effectiveness of placing deck parks on a freeway translated into a grass-roots campaign to secure federal funding for a major public health infrastructure project.

Assessment of diesel exhaust pollutants effects in Tillandsia capillaris and Ramalina celastri by laboratory trials

Traffic-related air pollution is one of the most relevant environmental problems in urban areas. Several cryptogams (i.e., lichens and mosses) and vascular species have been employed to monitor urban air pollution since they allow the assessment of air quality in a large number of sampling sites simultaneously at low cost. In large urban cities, vehicle emissions are frequently the major source of air pollution along with residential energy (for cooking and heating), industry, power generation, and waste incineration. Biomonitors in these urban environments are exposed to a mixture of pollutants making it difficult to identify which pollutant causes the greatest damage to organisms. However, studies that analyze the effect of pollutants emitted by vehicle exhaust are scarce and in the particular case of the most used biomonitor species in Argentina, no analysis of how they are affected by vehicle emissions has been carried out so far. So, the aim of this work was to analyze changes in physiochemical parameters (pigment content, pro-oxidant products, and sulfur accumulation) in Ramalina celastri, and heavy metal accumulation in Tillandsia capillaris, exposed to diesel exhausts under laboratory conditions. A strong damage in the photosynthetic apparatus of R. celastri was observed as well as metal concentration in T. capillaris after 20 min of exposure and 48 h of permanence in the exposure chambers. The results indicate that not only the particles and metals cause damage to these two well-known biomonitors, but the interaction of these pollutants with other components of the atmosphere that form different secondary pollutants, together with a longer exposure time, could cause the highest level of damage in them.

Chemical Composition, Sources, and Health Risk Assessment of PM2.5 and PM10 in Urban Sites of Bangkok, Thailand.

Of late, air pollution in Asia has increased, particularly in built-up areas due to rapid industrialization and urbanization. The present study sets out to examine the impact that pollution can have on the health of people living in the inner city of Bangkok, Thailand. Consequently, in 2021, fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and coarse particulate matter (PM10) chemical composition and sources are evaluated at three locations in Bangkok. To identify the possible sources of such particulates, therefore, the principal component analysis (PCA) technique is duly carried out. As determined via PCA, the major sources of air pollution in Bangkok are local emission sources and sea salt. The most significant local sources of PM2.5 and PM10 in Bangkok include primary combustion, such as vehicle emissions, coal combustion, biomass burning, secondary aerosol formation, industrial emissions, and dust sources. Except for the hazard quotient (HQ) of Ni and Mn of PM2.5 for adults, the HQ values of As, Cd, Cr, Mn, and Ni of both PM2.5 and PM10 were below the safe level (HQ = 1) for adults and children. This indicates that exposure to these metals would have non-carcinogenic health effects. Except for the carcinogenic risk (HI) value of Cr of PM2.5 and PM10, which can cause cancer in adults, at Bangna and Din Daeng, the HI values of Cd, Ni, As, and Pb of PM2.5 and PM10 are below the limit set by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA). Ni and Mn pose non-carcinogenic risks, whereas Cr poses carcinogenic risks to adults via inhalation, a serious threat to the residents of Bangkok.

Genomic Basis for Individual Differences in Susceptibility to the Neurotoxic Effects of Diesel Exhaust.

Air pollution is a known environmental health hazard. A major source of air pollution includes diesel exhaust (DE). Initially, research on DE focused on respiratory morbidities; however, more recently, exposures to DE have been associated with neurological developmental disorders and neurodegeneration. In this study, we investigated the effects of sub-chronic inhalation exposure to DE on neuroinflammatory markers in two inbred mouse strains and both sexes, including whole transcriptome examination of the medial prefrontal cortex. We exposed aged male and female C57BL/6J (B6) and DBA/2J (D2) mice to DE, which was cooled and diluted with HEPA-filtered compressed air for 2 h per day, 5 days a week, for 4 weeks. Control animals were exposed to HEPA-filtered air on the same schedule as DE-exposed animals. The prefrontal cortex was harvested and analyzed for proinflammatory cytokine gene expression (Il1β, Il6, Tnfα) and transcriptome-wide response by RNA-seq. We observed differential cytokine gene expression between strains and sexes in the DE-exposed vs. control-exposed groups for Il1β, Tnfα, and Il6. For RNA-seq, we identified 150 differentially expressed genes between air and DE treatment related to natural killer cell-mediated cytotoxicity per Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathways. Overall, our data show differential strain-related effects of DE on neuroinflammation and neurotoxicity and demonstrate that B6 are more susceptible than D2 to gene expression changes due to DE exposures than D2. These results are important because B6 mice are often used as the default mouse model for DE studies and strain-related effects of DE neurotoxicity warrant expanded studies.

Getting out of energy-intensive and “dirty” transport for sustainable societies

Societies around the world have committed themselves to achieving the Paris goals of carbon dioxide (CO2) reduction and limiting global warming to 1.5°C with different levels of legal commitment. The transport sector is both a major use of energy and a major source of air pollutants, including CO2, nitrogen oxides, ozone, particular matter, and volatile organic compounds that cause climate change and harm human health.1,2 The recent Ukraine–Russia war triggered countries to evaluate a fossil–fuel-dependent transport system that is highly vulnerable.

Assessment of Environmental Policies and Institutions for Effective Air Quality Management in Nepal

Air pollution is a serious environmental threat in major cities of Nepal. The major emission source of air pollutants is vehicular emission, resuspension of street dust litter during dry climatic conditions, black smoke plumes from brick kilns, and refuse burning. Effective plans and policies are required for the effective management and monitoring of air pollution. This study aims to review environmental policies and plans prevalent in Nepal and assess their effectiveness in controlling air pollution. The study is based on the literature review and a questionnaire survey using Najam's 5C framework for policy analysis. Although several national policies, plans, laws and standards have been formulated and international agreements have been ratified for the management of air pollution, separate policy dedicated to air pollution management has not been formulated in Nepal. According to Najam's framework, the content, context, and commitment of the overall policies, plans, and agreements for managing air quality in Nepal were assessed as effective. However, the capacity of the implementor, client support, and management coordination was found ineffective. This study recommends that a separate policy on air quality management is required, while the capacities of stakeholders and coordination mechanisms should be strengthened to improve the country's air quality.

The association between household biomass fuel use and leukocyte telomere length among toddlers in Bhaktapur, Nepal

BackgroundBiomass fuels are still in use for cooking by many households in resource poor countries such as Nepal and is a major source of household air pollution (HAP). Chronic exposure to HAP has been shown to be associated with shorter telomere length in adults.ObjectivesTo measure the association between exposure related to household biomass fuel in infancy and leukocyte telomere length (LTL) at 18–23 months of age among 497 children from Bhaktapur, Nepal.MethodsIn a prospective cohort study design, we have collected information on household cooking fuel use and several clinical, anthropometric, demographic, and socioeconomic variables. We estimated the association between biomass fuel use and the relative LTL in multiple linear regression models.ResultsMost of the families (78%) reported liquified petroleum gas (LPG) as the primary cooking fuel, and 18.7% used biomass. The mean relative (SD) LTL was 1.03 (0.19). Children living in households using biomass fuel had on average 0.09 (95% CI: 0.05 to 0.13) units shorter LTL than children in households with no biomass fuel use. The observed association was unaltered after adjusting for relevant confounders. The association between LTL and biomass use was strongest among children from households with ≤2 rooms and without separate kitchen.SignificanceExposure to biomass fuel use in early life might have consequences for longevity, and risk of chronic illnesses reflected in shortening of the telomeres. Our findings support the ongoing effort to reduce exposure to biomass fuel in low-resource settings.Impact statementsBiomass for cooking is a leading source of household air pollution in low and middle-income countries, contributing to many chronic diseases and premature deaths. Chronic exposure to biomass fuel through oxidative stress and inflammation has been associated with a shortening of the telomeres, a “biological marker” of longevity. This prospective cohort study describes the association between household biomass fuel use and leukocyte telomere length among 497 toddlers. Leukocyte telomere length was significantly shorter among children living in households with biomass fuel than in children from homes where mainly LPG was used for cooking.Clinical Trial registrationClinicaltrials.gov: NCT02272842, registered October 21, 2014, Universal Trial Number: U1111-1161-5187 (September 8, 2014)

Chemical characterization and health risk assessment of VOCs and PM2.5-bound PAHs emitted from typical Chinese residential cooking

Cooking is a major source of indoor air pollution. Existing studies suggest that organic material is the most abundant component by mass in cooking emissions, while the detailed organic species that result from cooking remains poorly understood. This work provides a comprehensive foundational knowledge of emission arising from typical Chinese residential cooking based on a field-work measurement of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and the routinely measured fine particulate matter (PM2.5) composition. Exposure to the Chinese cooking procedures will likely pose a significant health risk, with grilling producing the highest PM2.5 concentration (28.79 ± 9.36 mg m−3) and the most distinctive composition among the cooking patterns. The PAHs with 3 rings dominated the total PAHs by mass (48.08%), with the major organic species Phenanthrene (Phe), Anthracene (Ant), Benzo [a] pyrene (BaP), and Fluorene (Flu), accounting for 0.0399–0.5966, 0.0091–0.6710, 0.0046–0.4531, and 0.0086–0.3102 ng per μg of PM2.5, respectively. Oxygenated VOCs (OVOCs) accounted for 37.98% of the total VOCs. The ratios of Fla/(Fla + Pyr) and IcdP/(IcdP + BghiP) helped in distinguishing residential cooking emissions from other sources. The incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) values of PAHs and VOCs were 6.9 × 10−6–1.8 × 10−5 and 2.7 × 10−6–1.8 × 10−3, respectively, which were substantially higher than the acceptable levels (1.0 × 10−6) established by the U.S. EPA. The considerable health risks posed by Chinese cooking emissions necessitate additional study and control measures to lessen indoor air pollution and protect human health.

Cost–Benefit Analysis of Synergistic CO2 and NOx Energy-Efficient Technologies for the Road Transport Sector in China

The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gases and air pollutants, and it has a crucial effect on the synergistic reduction of NOx and carbon. In order to find the energy-efficient vehicle technologies with the highest net reduction potential and lowest net reduction cost over the life cycle, this study traced the CO2 and NOx emission streams of 33 energy-efficient technologies, hidden in the supply chain during the production phase, through structural path analysis, and measured the emission reductions during the use phase using the emission factor method. Moreover, we applied structural decomposition analysis to quantify the three main drivers, including emission intensity, industrial structure, and final demand, of changes in CO2 and NOx emissions from 11 transport subsectors during 2012–2018. Results indicate that CO2 emissions of the transport sector more than doubled from 2012 to 2018; however, the influence of NOx was less significant. The final demand of the road subsector was the most significant driver contributing to CO2 emission changes, with an increase of 109.27 Mt. The emission intensity of road transportation caused the greatest mitigation effect on NOx emission changes, with a decrease of 1902 Kt. The findings of the scenario analysis demonstrate that the most efficient action of the pure electric technology for passenger cars reduces 20.92 Mt NOx emissions, and the parallel hybrid technology for heavy trucks offers the greatest cost effectiveness with a net abatement of 2577 Mt CO2 over its life cycle. Consequently, the aggressive development of new energy technology has become a prerequisite strategy to synergistically reduce CO2 and NOx emissions.