Major Schism Research Articles

Reinventing the Humanities

The humanities are currently under pressure from vocational studies and electronic technologies. The more education is mechanized and corporatized, the less room there is often thought to be for the Bildung that the modern humanities aimed to impart. At the same time, radical critiques of the neoliberal university have appeared, implicating it in colonial practices, racism, and the promotion of casteism, hierarchy, and inequality. Currently there are major schisms between defenders of the traditional humanities and advocates of technologically based higher education, advocates of radically politicized higher education, and advocates of entirely vocational training, which dispenses with the humanities altogether.

Byzantium, Crusades and Native Eastern Christian Churches: Case of the Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch

95 Journal of South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies Vol. 41, No.3, Spring 2018 Byzantium, Crusades and Native Eastern Christian Churches: Case of the Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch Georges Masse* Being part of Byzantium, and starting with the era of the Roman Emperor Justinian the Great, the regions of Syria and Egypt were considered as heretical. Despite all attempts of Byzantium to merge the churches of the region in Orthodoxy, the “Monophysites” native churches, which believed that Christ had only one nature (monophosus), resisted in Syria, Egypt and Armenia. The aim of this paper is to shed light on the forgotten current Christian native churches of the East. In specific, this paper explores how the Syriac church, known today as the Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch, an example of the aforementioned “Monophysites” churches, faced the events that took place in this eastern region of Byzantium and preserved its existence, independence and relations with other communities. The outcomes of this research will help unravel current dramatic consequences which may impact the selected church’s survival in a region described today as unstable. The early history of the Native Eastern churches hinged on three big events that played a crucial role in its eventual weakness and decline. The first was the emergence of Byzantium, secondly, the start of Christian Western adventures known as the crusades and thirdly, the dawn of the Islamic Conquest. By the beginning of the fourth century, the world witnessed the emergence and development of the Byzantine Empire accompanied by big internal changes in both the Roman and the Byzantine Empires. The newly *Georges Masse is a professor at the American University of Science and Technology (Beirut-Lebanon) 96 emerging empire, which inherited vast territories and a significant variety of populations from different origins, languages and traditions, began a process of Byzantinization1 that led to internal misunderstanding and conflicts. The conflict culminated when the church and the state attempted to unify “and by force” all native churches under the umbrella of the Byzantium Greek rite. During that era, debates over the understanding of the nature of the Christ had occupied theologians for a long time. To put an end to internal ecclesiastical tension and discussions, the new Byzantine Emperor Marcian called for a new council in Chalcedon in 451. In this council, the largest church council gathering then, a decree was adopted declaring that Christ was to be “acknowledged in two natures, without being mixed, transmuted, divided, or separated.” The direct results of Chalcedon led to a major schism. Several churches rejected the Chalcedon resolution and broke off from the rest of the church; the most significant among the churches, that will be later termed the Monophysites, were The Coptic church of Alexandria, The Armenian Church and The Syriac church of Antioch. The Christological position referred to as Monophysites asserted that in the person of Jesus Christ there was only one divine nature rather than two natures, divine and human. These churches believed that they were preserving and defending the belief in Christ. The reaction of the imperial government, whose main goal was to unify the whole empire under the true faith, was to employ force, oppression and persecution to put down the Monophysites.2 This can be clearly seen by the Emperor’s declaration stating that “no one shall dare speak about the birth of our Lord and Savior except as handed down by the council.” Such statement transformed the council’s decision into an imperial law, and the punishment for those who refused to obey became legal.3 As a result of these policies, Byzantine emperors treated the Syriac and the other churches as well, as heretics from the fifth century onward.4 One must note that the Church of Antioch was not an accidental church; the Holy See of Antioch was established by Saint Peter the Apostle in 37 AD. Therefore, he is considered the first Patriarch of the Syriac Orthodox 1 Pirenne Henry, Mohammad and Charlemagne, New York, Meridian books, 1960.p164. 2 Allen P. & Cawte J, Christ in Christian Tradition 2 (London, Oxford, 1987), 94. 3 Moosa Matte, “The Crusades: An Eastern Perspective with Emphasis on Syriac Sources”, Muslim World Journal.vol.93...

Creating the thin blue line: Social network evolution within a police academy

Whenever major schisms between police and communities come to public attention, there are always passionate calls for an increased emphasis on - and improvement of - police training. This rhetoric is so common that police leaders joke that there is no societal problem so big that it can’t be fixed by better police training. Still, professional socialization in law enforcement remains an important topic with a great deal of resources being devoted to developing initiatives and augmenting existing curricula. This training comes in many forms including learning the nuts and bolts of many legal processes and acquiring the practical skills for law enforcement. However, beyond this, there is a socialization process with multiple facets including the development of solidarity and trust among a cohort of recruits. We attempt to understand the basic mechanisms of network creation in police academies as the foundation of the socialization processes within them. By focusing on these network mechanisms underlying the establishment of the ‘Thin Blue Line’, we offer an understanding of the underlying social processes foundational for the transmission of police culture. In short, we think the recruit network structure functions as a vehicle for cultural transmission within police academies.

The state, Shia‘s and Shi‘ism in medieval India

The major schism in the history of Islam in India, as in some other countries with Muslim populations, has been between Sunnism and Shi‘ism. Since Shias have formed a minority in India, it is of some interest to trace how they were treated by the Sunni majority (and the state) and follow the progress of theological controversies that ensued between the two sects. The present paper reconstructs the story of the co-existence and disputation between the two sects in India from about the thirteenth century to the early nineteenth century, when the onset of colonialism created an entirely changed political and cultural atmosphere.

Unity and catholicity in the Korean Presbyterian Church: An ecumenical Reformed assessment

I attempt to find the main causes of the serious disunity in the Presbyterian Church in Korea (PCK), which started as one church but is now divided into more than 100 denominations, as well as a solution to promote the unity of the PCK. This attempt starts with an exegesis of Ephesians, with special reference to Ephesians 4:1�16, to understand the biblical principle on this matter. This article draws on a mature ecclesiology and a mature sense of unity as key concepts. After that, the history of the PCK disunity is briefly described, dealing with four major schisms. Based on this historical investigation, the disunity in the PCK is assessed. In addition, the weak sense of unity and weak ecclesiology of the PCK, which played a role in its disunity, are discussed in view of the confessions of faith, the ministry of the word and the Lord�s Supper, and ecumenical efforts in relation to national and international ecumenical organisations. Lastly, contributory suggestions based on the mature sense of unity are offered to the PCK in particular and the Reformed family and all Christian churches in general.Intradisciplinary and/or interdisciplinary implications: In my ecumenical Reformed intradisciplinary assessment of unity and catholicity in the PCK, which started as one church but is now divided into more than 100 denominations, I identify the main causes of serious disunity in the PCK, namely a weak sense of unity, immaturity and secularisation.

Memory and Space: Towards an Understanding of the Cognitive Map.

Research of hippocampal function is dominated by two major views. The spatial view argues that the hippocampus tracks routes through space, whereas the memory view suggests a broad role in declarative memory. Both views rely on considerable evidence, but neither provides a complete account of hippocampal function. Here we review evidence that, in addition to spatial context, the hippocampus encodes a wide variety of information about temporal and situational context, about the systematic organization of events in abstract space, and about routes through maps of cognition and space. We argue that these findings cross the boundaries of the memory and spatial views and offer new insights into hippocampal function as a system supporting a broad range of cognitive maps.

The Ecological Society of America at Mid‐Century: Finding Its Voice

The Ecological Society of America at Mid‐Century: Finding Its Voice

Harmony in Wood: Furniture of the Harmony Society

In this beautifully illustrated and impeccably researched study, Philip Zimmerman breaks exciting new ground in his exploration of Harmonist furniture. Followers of nineteenth-century German mystic and visionary George Rapp, Harmonists have not received the same scholarly attention for their furniture as their utopian contemporaries the Shakers and Zoarites. Like those communities, the Harmonists developed a distinctive style over the first half of the nineteenth century that blended locally available resources, communal needs, and traditional ethnic forms and construction practices. The result is a body of work that is stylistically innovative, fundamentally functional, and often aesthetically pleasing.Initially founded at Harmonie, about thirty-five miles north of Pittsburgh, in 1804, the Harmonists moved to New Harmony, Indiana, in 1814 and back to Economy, Pennsylvania, in 1824. In time, the community grew to more than eight hundred members and developed a remarkable manufacturing industry. Following Rapp's lead, the community practiced the communal ownership of land and advocated (but did not require) celibacy as they awaited the Second Coming. Zimmerman provides a succinct overview of the community's history, but more attention to the influence of the community's religious beliefs on the productions of the Harmonists would have been helpful. The community closed in 1905, and a little over a decade later the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission purchased six acres of the site, which is preserved today as Old Economy Village. Not until 1937 would most of the furnishings be sold to the state by John Duss, last trustee of the community, a complicated story that Zimmerman explains in a chapter on the provenance of the collection.Much documentation for the community as a whole has survived, but little concerns the daily lives of Harmonist artisans. In the absence of written records by or about cabinetmakers, joiners, and turners, Zimmerman has turned to their body of work. He draws primarily from the collections of Old Economy Village and private collections that descended in the families of women and men who left the community as a result of a major schism in 1832. Based on an exhaustive four-year study, Zimmerman discerned distinctive styles, techniques, and practices that help him identify pieces made within the community. These include how the use of materials like tulip poplar or white pine can help date pieces to specific communities; how interior architectural elements like raised panels and turned balustrades reappear in household furniture; which specific types of decoration, like ball-and-cone turnings on chair legs, Harmonist craftsmen preferred; and how certain Germanic construction and design practices persisted through time. Harmony in Wood is a masterful example of what material culture can tell us in the absence of the written record.Those familiar with the forms common to early nineteenth-century rural households will recognize much here. Chairs, blanket chests, tables, and clocks share many similarities with popular furniture forms and styles, although often reflecting distinctive stylistic choices and construction techniques. But Zimmerman also includes several fascinating pieces illustrative of the adaptation, innovation, and imagination of Harmonist artisans. A wardrobe made from a blanket chest illustrates the willingness of Harmonists to recycle old furniture to new purposes. Rather than rebuild the piece, an artisan simply added a set of drawers and cupboard on top of the chest and made the original lid the top, without ever removing the original hinges. An eccentric mahogany-veneered dish cupboard with ornate feet, undulating sides, and a distinct arrangement of doors has no obvious counterpart in American or Germanic design. Instead, it tantalizingly suggests the imagination of an unknown craftsman. Finally, a shadowbox with a delicate carved and painted image of Harmonie, an embodiment of spiritual wisdom found in Harmonist hymns, nestled in a broken pediment reminds us of the religious dimension of Harmonist work. Little evidence suggests what might have hung inside the shadow box or hints at its ultimate significance to its user. This, alas, is the situation for many pieces in the book. Harmonists rarely signed their work or explained the rationale behind their creations.Harmony in Wood is the first of a proposed series of scholarly catalogues focused on groups of objects made by Harmonist artisans. If this volume is any indication of the quality of future titles in the series, then historians of decorative arts as well as scholars of history and religion are exceedingly fortunate.

Russia and the Secession of Kosovo: Power, Norms and the Failure of Multilateralism

Theoretical debates about multilateralism positively juxtapose it to unilateralism or bilateralism, because it is seen as a natural ideational fit with the growth of global governance. The major schism on the concept is between normativists who emphasise shared values and the realists' concerns with strategic interactions and power asymmetries. The Kosovo crisis beginning in 1999 could be seen as the first major crisis of multilateralism in the international system after the end of the Cold War. It was a crisis about the role and interests of a hegemonic USA and a weakened Russia. As a case, Kosovo demonstrates the paradoxes and limitations of multilateralism in the field of international security, when there are different types and levels of multilateralism interacting. The US and EU leaderships saw Kosovo as essentially a regional problem which could be manipulated to rejuvenate and enhance Western multilateral cooperation in NATO. This view found support among an upper echelon of officials in the UN, surrounding Secretary-General Kofi Annan, which favoured a multilateral intervention in Kosovo as proof of commitment to the developing norm of ‘right to protect’. Russia, however, saw its multilateral engagement over Kosovo as a strategic interaction to counterbalance and compensate for its weakness vis-à-vis NATO. The multilateral interactions by these three parties appear to have deepened mistrust as the process failed to resolve the final status of Kosovo, leading to its unilateral declaration of independence in 2008. The case demonstrates the importance of shared interests for successful multilateral interactions.

Road to Busan: Exploring the venue for the 10th WCC assembly

The South Korean city of Busan will be the venue for the 10th assembly of the World Council of Churches in 2013. Busan is thought of as the land of Buddhism and the shelter for refugees during the Korean War. Many famous Buddhist temples in Korea are located in the Busan area and Busan was the only place that was not captured by the Communists during the Korean War. Many refugees fled to Busan to find a safe shelter. Busan is also called a symbolic place of the Presbyterian schisms. A major schism mainly took place in Busan right after the Korean War. This schism is related to the Shinto Shrine worship forced by Japanese imperialists. Another serious schism was in 1959, which took place when the Presbyterian churches divided into two denominations due to the issue of participating in the WCC. In short, the 10th WCC Assembly will take place in a land marked by Buddhism and Christian schism. The purpose of this paper is to examine the historical significance of the 10th WCC Assembly in Busan, from the perspective of a Korean Christian living in Busan, to find a way of successful assembly.

Neither Here nor There: On Grief and Absence in Emerson's "Experience"

Ralph Waldo Emerson wrote Experience (1844) after the death of his young son, a major schism in his life, and yet the essay is notable for the fact that Emerson pointedly refuses to demonstrate his grief. Tellingly, he does not even name the child, preferring the generalized and even imper sonal son instead. It would seem, from his words and the cursory manner in which he treats it, that the loss does not affect him: In the death of my son, now than two years ago, I seem to have lost a beauti ful estate,?no more (in 2001,200; hereafter cited parenthetically by page

Harold Wilson, the British Labour Party, and the War in Vietnam

When British Prime Minister Harold Wilson urged Lyndon Johnson not to escalate hostilities in Vietnam in 1965, he did so not because he was morally opposed to the war or thought the war was intractable but because he was concerned about the likely impact of U.S. actions on his own domestic power base. Wilson's stance of providing moral but not military support for U.S. policy in Vietnam caused anger and disillusionment among leftwing Labour Party activists and members of Parliament, spurring them to active opposition against Wilson's government. Even so, Wilson managed to prevent a major schism within his government and party over the Vietnam War. His attempts to broker a peace deal between the combatants were largely designed to placate Labour Party activists while raising Wilson's profile as a world statesman. Although the initiatives did not generate any progress toward a ceasefire, they were relatively successful on the domestic front.

The evolutionary inheritance of elemental stoichiometry in marine phytoplankton.

Phytoplankton is a nineteenth century ecological construct for a biologically diverse group of pelagic photoautotrophs that share common metabolic functions but not evolutionary histories. In contrast to terrestrial plants, a major schism occurred in the evolution of the eukaryotic phytoplankton that gave rise to two major plastid superfamilies. The green superfamily appropriated chlorophyll b, whereas the red superfamily uses chlorophyll c as an accessory photosynthetic pigment. Fossil evidence suggests that the green superfamily dominated Palaeozoic oceans. However, after the end-Permian extinction, members of the red superfamily rose to ecological prominence. The processes responsible for this shift are obscure. Here we present an analysis of major nutrients and trace elements in 15 species of marine phytoplankton from the two superfamilies. Our results indicate that there are systematic phylogenetic differences in the two plastid types where macronutrient (carbon:nitrogen:phosphorus) stoichiometries primarily reflect ancestral pre-symbiotic host cell phenotypes, but trace element composition reflects differences in the acquired plastids. The compositional differences between the two plastid superfamilies suggest that changes in ocean redox state strongly influenced the evolution and selection of eukaryotic phytoplankton since the Proterozoic era.

THE MESOZOIC RADIATION OF EUKARYOTIC ALGAE: THE PORTABLE PLASTID HYPOTHESIS1

Although all chloroplasts appear to have been derived from a common ancestor, a major schism occurred early in the evolution of eukaryotic algae that gave rise to red and green photoautotrophic lineages. In Paleozoic and earlier times, the fossil record suggests that oceanic eukaryotic phytoplankton were dominated by the green (chl b‐containing) algal line. However, following the end‐Permian extinction, a diverse group of eukaryotic phytoplankton evolved from secondary symbiotic associations in the red (chl c‐containing) line and subsequently rose to ecological prominence. In the contemporary oceans, red eukaryotic phytoplankton taxa continue to dominate marine pelagic food webs, whereas the green line is relegated to comparatively minor ecological and biogeochemical roles. To help elucidate why the oceans are not dominated by green taxa, we analyzed and compared whole plastid genomes in both the red and green lineages. Our results suggest that whereas all algal plastids retain a core set of genes, red plastids retain a complementary set of genes that potentially confer more capacity to autonomously express proteins regulating oxygenic photosynthetic and energy transduction pathways. We hypothesize that specific gene losses in the primary endosymbiotic green plastid reduced its portability for subsequent symbiotic associations. This corollary of the plastid “enslavement” hypothesis may have limited subsequent evolutionary advances in the green lineage while simultaneously providing a competitive advantage to the red lineage.

Re-Orienting Desire: The Gay International and the Arab World

One of the more compelling issues to emerge out of the gay movement in the last two decades is the universalization of “gay rights.” This project has appropriated the prevailing U.S. discourse on human rights in order to launch itself on an international scale. Following in the footsteps of the white Western women’s movement, which had sought to universalize its issues through imposing its own colonial feminism on the women’s movements in the non-Western world — a situation that led to major schisms from the outset — the gay movement has adopted a similar missionary role. Organizations dominated by white Western males (the International Lesbian and Gay Association [ILGA] and the International Gay and Lesbian Human Rights Commission [IGLHRC]) sprang up to defend the rights of “gays and lesbians” all over the world and to advocate on their behalf. ILGA, which was founded in 1978 at the height of the Carter administration’s human rights campaign against the Soviet Union and Third World enemies, asserts that one of its aims is to “create a platform for lesbians, gay men, bisexuals, and transgendered people internationally, in their quest for recognition, equality, and liberation, in particular through the world and regional confer

Philosophical assumptions in Freud, Jung and Bion: questions of causality.

The historical development of concepts of causality in philosophy is described. Since the Enlightenment and the growth of science, exponents of the two most important concepts, determinism and teleology, have been in conflict. At the inception of psychoanalysis at the end of the nineteenth century this conflict was particularly intense. It was the cause of the first major schism in psychoanalysis between Jung and Freud. Psychoanalytic theorists have continued to disagree over this issue. Post-modernist philosophy has abolished all metaphysics and therefore called into question concepts of psychic causality. Parallel to, but uninfluenced by this development, Bion has developed a psychoanalytic conceptualization which may be seen as transcending causality. The clinical and theoretical implications of these developments are described.

Unfolding the Surface of Information

Introduction Electronic interactive raises many questions regarding the nature of design. Can the speed and ubiquity of new information, broadly construed, be understood through older theories of communication-or is there a threshold that we begin to cross where immediate distribution through electronic networks and user interaction contradicts many older definitions of design? There is a crisis in our understanding. The older models and applied theories of maker and audience seem insufficient within this environment, yet, what theories are provided seem to be placed within a hypothetical future that seems unconnected with the present. To examine the present is extremely difficult. Rather than decrying the differences between historical literacy and the electronic environment, or seeking to stake out specializations as professional territory, it is important that we recognize the existence of a cultural system of meaning and transmission which hybridizes and appropriates literally anything if it can be made to function effectively for a particular motivation or need. The historical understanding of information as being static, materialistic in the sense of the creation of the physical artifacts of print, and linear has been superseded. There are at least four major schisms between print and electronic information, primarily of time and velocity, indexing, immateriality and ephemerality, and the simulation of a visual perspective for the user (or point-of-view). These breaks challenge the notion of a historical understanding based totally within print.

Bridging the Schism Between Behavioral and Cognitive Analyses

A major schism in modern scientific psychology has occurred between behavior analysts and cognitive psychologists. The two groups speak in different languages, but the languages can be translated so that they are mutually understandable; when either language is translated into the other, similarities emerge from seeming differences. We draw an analogy between the basic units of behavior analysis (the operant and the establishing operation) and cognitive psychology (the production). We argue that both units describe behavior as a function of motivative and discriminative antecedents. In addition, the two perspectives account in analogous ways for ongoing changes in motivation and for control by verbal statements. Adherents of the two perspectives have experimentally analyzed some of the same problems and fashioned similar solutions for applied problems. We conclude that many of the commonly cited differences between the two perspectives are the result of misunderstanding, and that the real differences need not preclude communication and collaboration. The schism can be bridged.

George Fox, Historian

Carl Lotus Becker (1873-1945), a leading American historian of two generations ago, once wrote an essay entitled, His Own Historian (Becker, Everyman 233-55), whose gist he stated quite explicitly: For all practical purposes history is, for us and for the time being, what we know it to (Becker, Everyman 234). Becker was, of course, a renowned scholar, author of numerous books, and interested in the impact of ideas on the course of human development (Becker, Freedom ix-xlvii).1 He did not publicly announce his conclusion until he was fifty-eight years old, when the bulk of his scholarly work was completed, when, in short, he could draw on nearly a lifetime of thought and experience to validate his point (Becker, Freedom xiii). History is what we know it to be. What it required Becker nearly a scholar's lifetime to articulate, George Fox ( 1 624-91 ), founding organizer of the Religious Society of Friends, came to see just as clearly, and he was poorly educated, practical, and unphilosophical.2 Like Becker, Fox's realization of the truth about history grew out of his experience, but his took place in a far more eruptive arena than Becker's tranquil academic milieu. When he began to think seriously about history, during the 1 670s in the fifth decade of his life, Fox had seen his religious movement develop from a small sect in the midlands and north country of England into a group that helped shatter the government of the English Commonwealth and bring on the reaction called the Stuart Restoration (Reay). He had, moreover, witnessed it wracked by three major schisms and numerous smaller ones (Fox 2: 314-15). He had overseen organization of his followers' scattered and rather independent meetings into an orderly system that allowed control from the center yet preserved a good deal of local autonomy; in fact this may have been his most important contribution, for the Society of Friends was the single revolutionary-era sect to survive to the present.3 Doting disciples lionized him indeed, deified would hardly be an inaccurate term so much that he grew embarrassed by their accolades; he might have ruefully recalled that he had done little to discourage such adulation. To paraphrase a proverb of the time, Fox was as full of history, much of it of his own making, as others were of ale (Wilson 8). In the 1670s, as he began to go through the movement's archives, kept by the diligent Margaret Fell (161 4-1702), and dictate his memoirs comprising his history of the movement,4 Fox demonstrated that he had learned what

A Major Schism in the Early Isma'ili Movement

The Isma'ili movement was rent by a major schism in the year 286/899, shortly after 'Ubayd Allah ('Abd Allah) al-Mahdi, the future Fatimid caliph, had succeeded to the central leadership of the Isma'ilis. As a result of this schism, brought to the attention of modern scholars by the recent progress in Isma'Ili studies, early Isma'llism was split into two rival factions, which later became generally designated as Fatimid Isma'ilism and Qarmatism. This article aims to investigate the circumstances and issues surrounding this schism, which centred around the variations in the doctrine of the imamate upheld by the early Isma'ilis. The origins of Ismd'ilism as a separate branch of Im~mi Shi'ism may be traced to the dispute over the succession to Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq (d. 148/765). Often living clandestinely, and conducting their da'wa or missionary activities secretly, in order to escape persecution at the hands of their numerous enemies, the Ismd'llis have nevertheless had a very eventful history, extending over some twelve centuries and through many Muslim lands from North Africa to Central Asia and the Indian sub-continent. The Isma'ilis twice succeeded in establishing important states of their own, the Fatimid caliphate (297-567/909-1171) and the Nizarl state of Persia and Syria (483-654/1090-1256), in addition to winning many Muslim dynasties and individual rulers to their side. Ism'lilism has also undergone several major and minor schisms. The schism of the year 286/899 was the first major one in the Ism'lili movement, and it had important consequences for the history of Ismd'ilism.