Effective Action (arthakriyā), Activity (kāritra), and Nonactivity (nirvyāpāra) Zhihua Yao 1. Introduction A perplexing concept is usually a hallmark of the creativity of the thinker who conceived it. In the history of Buddhist philosophy, arthakriyā (effective action) is such a concept, which is credited to Dharmakīrti, one of the most creative and influential Buddhist thinkers. Although this term did not originate with him, he developed the concept into one of the key tenets of his own complicated philosophy and of subsequent Buddhist thinking. Some contemporary scholars have attempted to trace this Dharmakīrtian concept to early Buddhist sources. Nagatomi (1967–68, 64–67) traced arthakriyā to the Abhidharma sources, but he seemed to head in the wrong direction by focusing on a curious concept, nengsheng 能生. Akimoto (2004) made a pioneering study that explicitly spells out the continuity between the Vaibhāṣika concept of kāritra (activity) and the Dharmakīrtian concept of arthakriyā. In this article, I will study more carefully the relationship of arthakriyā with the Vaibhāṣika concept of kāritra and the concept of nirvyāpāra (nonactivity) as found in Dignāga, Vasubandhu and the early Yogācāras. I will examine some major works of these Buddhist philosophers and their many commentators, focusing on their concepts of effective action (arthakriyā), activity (kāritra) and nonactivity (nirvyāpāra), and demonstrate the following main points: [End Page 7] 1. The Dharmakīrtian concept of effective action (arthakriyā) can be traced back to the Vaibhāṣika concept of activity (kāritra). The main difference is that the latter assumes the reality of all three times, whereas the former is committed to an ontological stance of momentariness. 2. The early Vaibhāṣikas understand activity (kāritra) in three main aspects: intrinsic activity, causal activity, and the activity of arising and cessation. The term vyāpāra in most cases refers to the intrinsic activity of factors; sometimes it can be used interchangeably with kāritra to cover all aspects of activity. 3. The theory of nonactivity (nirvyāpāra) denies not only intrinsic activity but also causal activity by reducing causality to similarity. This theory can be identified as one of the main doctrines of the Yogācāra-Sautrāntikas, a group of Sautrāntikas influenced by Yogācāras. 4. Dignāga is ontologically committed to nonactivity, in the sense that he denies both intrinsic and causal activities. Hence, he is qualified to be a Yogācāra-Sautrāntika, but Dharmakīrti is ambiguous. When commenting on relevant passages from Dignāga, he seems to accept the theory of nonactivity, but his key concept, effective action (arthakriyā), endorses causal activity or even intrinsic activity. The tension between the two thinkers can be eased only when we interpret effective action as a conventional reality. By restoring the central status of the concept of nonactivity, we also view the two related concepts “activity” and “effective action” in a new light. This study shows the subtlety in the development of Buddhist philosophical concepts and the complexity of the interactions between various Buddhist philosophical schools. 2. Effective Action (arthakriyā) and Activity (kāritra) Evidence shows that the term arthakriyā had already been circulated among some non-Buddhist and Buddhist writers before Dharmakīrti. For example, it is found in the Naiyāyika Vātsyāyana’s Nyāyabhāṣya, in the Grammarian Bhartṛhari’s Vākyapadīya, and in Dignāga’s Pramāṇasamuccayavṛtti (PSV) chapter 5.1 According to Harada (1990), the term in these examples can be understood in the sense of “purposeful action.” This [End Page 8] word, with its Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit variation, arthacaryā, also occurs frequently in Buddhist literature, referring to one of the four means of attraction (saṃgraha-vastu).2 According to this teaching, a Bodhisattva uses four means to train his relationship with other beings and to draw them to the Buddhist teachings. They are generosity (dāna), kind words (priyavadyatā), beneficial action (arthakriyā), and sympathy (samānārtha). In these cases, the various usages of the term arthakriyā share the meaning of “purposeful or beneficial action.” In Dharmakīrti’s...