Maculinea Teleius Research Articles

Different flight behaviour of the endangered scarce large blue butterfly Phengaris teleius (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) within and outside its habitat patches

Understanding individual movements in heterogeneous environments is central to predicting how landscape changes affect animal populations. An important but poorly understood phenomenon is behavioural response to habitat boundaries and the way animals cross inhospitable matrix surrounding habitat patches. Here, we analyze movement decisions, flight behaviour, and activity of the endangered scarce large blue Phengaris (Maculinea) teleius, focusing on the differences among the patterns observed in patch interior, at patch boundaries and within matrix. The probability of crossing an external patch boundary, regardless of the land use in the adjacent area, was considerably lower than crossing a ‘control line’ within patch interior. Movement distances, flight durations and net squared displacement were largest in matrix, while similarly smaller at patch boundaries and in patch interior. The distribution of angles between successive movements was clearly clustered around 0° (indicating flight in a straight line) in matrix and at patch boundaries, but not in patch interior. There were no differences in time spent on foraging, resting and ovipositing between patch interior and boundaries, but the first two activities rarely, and oviposition never, happened in matrix. Our results suggest that although P. teleius adults do not avoid using the resources located in the boundaries of habitat patches, they often return to the interior of the patches when crossing their boundaries. However, having entered the matrix the butterflies perform relatively long and straight flights. The estimated probability of emigration and net squared distance implies that the dispersal between local populations is common in this species in the studied area.

Behavioural evidence for a putative oviposition-deterring pheromone in the butterfly, Phengaris (Maculinea) teleius (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae)

Larvae of the endangered Scarce Large Blue butterfly, Phengaris (Maculinea) teleius, are initially endophytic, feeding upon developing seeds of Sanguisorba officinalis, but complete their development as social parasites preying on the brood of Myrmica ants. Females show very specific preferences, laying eggs exclusively in young flower heads of the food plant. In the present contribution we report the results of a detailed study of female behaviour at three sites differing in size and abundance of S. officinalis. Tracked individuals switched between feeding on nectar (nectaring), flight and oviposition. They fed exclusively on flowers of reddish, pink or violet colouration, favouring Viccia cracca and S. officinalis. However, females spent about one fifth of the time they were active ovipositing and laid about 20 eggs per hour. Oviposition visits to flower heads were highly stereotyped and followed a specific ritual. Examination of accepted, rejected and randomly sampled flower heads showed that females avoided those containing conspecific eggs and at a site where this was difficult due to a shortage of suitable flower heads, they tended to distribute their eggs evenly among the available flower heads. Our results indirectly indicate the existence of an oviposition-deterring pheromone (ODP) in P. teleius. This hypothetical marking ensures a more even distribution of eggs and possibly increases the chances of survival of caterpillars by reducing competition during both the phytophagous and myrmecophagous stages of development. There are few reports of butterflies producing ODPs and to our knowledge this is the first evidence of their presence in the family Lycaenidae.

Combining performance-based and action-based payments to provide environmental goods under uncertainty

Payments for environmental services (PES) are widely adopted to support the conservation of biodiversity and other environmental goods. Challenges that PES schemes have to tackle are (i) environmental uncertainty and (ii) information asymmetry between the provider of the service (typically a farmer) and the regulator. Environmental uncertainty calls for action-based payment schemes, because of the more favorable risk allocation if the farmer is risk-averse. Information asymmetry, on the other hand, calls for a performance-based payment, because of the more direct incentives for the farmer. Based on a principal-agent model, we study the optimal combination of both, performance-based and action-based payments under conditions of environmental uncertainty and asymmetric information. We find that for a risk-neutral regulator a combination is optimal in the majority of cases and that the welfare gain of the combined scheme over a pure action-based (performance-based) payment increases with information asymmetry (environmental uncertainty). We further show that for a regulator who is risk-averse against fluctuations in environmental goods provision the optimal performance-based payment is lower than for a risk-neutral regulator. We quantitatively illustrate our findings in a case study on the enhancement of the butterfly Scarce Large Blue (Maculinea teleius) in Landau/Germany.

Life cycle and growth pattern of the endangered myrmecophilous Microdon myrmicae (Diptera: Syrphidae)

In Europe there are only a few species of the syrphid fly Microdon, which live in the nests of various genera of ants. For most of these rare flies, details of their biology, larval behaviour and relationships with their hosts are still not yet well known. In this paper we present data on the life cycle, feeding behaviour and growth pattern of Microdon myrmicae, a social parasite of Myrmica ants and compare it with two species of Maculinea butterflies similarly parasitizing Myrmica ant colonies. M. myrmicae has three larval instars and overwinters as a third instar. Eggs and 1st instar larvae are ignored by ants, which indicate that they are "chemically insignificant". 2nd and 3rd instar larvae feed on small ant brood. M.myrmicae larvae grow rapidly from May to July and later in the year the host colony only serves as shelter for overwintering. Like Maculinea alcon, larvae of M. myrmicae are numerous in Myrmica nests and more numerous than those of Maculinea teleius. Since the larvae of Microdon feed on an abundance of young ant brood, they experience low level of scramble competition and although many may develop in an ant's nest they have probably little effect on host colony fitness.

All natural habitat edges matter equally for endangered Maculinea butterflies

An obvious consequence of habitat fragmentation is an increasing role of habitat edges for species survival. Recently it has been suggested that the endangered butterfly Maculinea nausithous prefers forested edges of its meadow habitats. However, the prevalence of forests in the study area used for this analysis makes it impossible to distinguish whether the effect detected is a genuine preference for forest edges or a preference for any natural patch edges as opposed to patch interiors. We investigated habitat selection by Maculinea nausithous and Maculinea teleius occurring sympatrically at five habitat patches surrounded by mosaic landscape. Butterfly capture positions were marked with GPS and subsequently analysed with GIS software. Both species avoided the interiors of their patches and concentrated in the edge zone, but these preferences were visible only at three larger patches exceeding 1 ha in area. Among different types of edges those bordering densely built-up areas were avoided, whereas all natural edges (adjacent to forests, reeds or grasslands) were similarly used. We hypothesise that preferences towards natural patch edges, regardless of their type, can be explained by the spatial interactions between Maculinea butterflies and Myrmica ants they parasitise. Patch surroundings constitute refuge space for the ants, and hence their densities may be expected to be higher near patch edges. Our findings indicate the importance of patch surroundings for the persistence of Maculinea populations. Regretfully, current legal framework makes it difficult to protect patch surroundings, where neither priority species nor their habitats occur.

A lycaenid Maculinea teleius found at the Hokkaido University campus

A lycaenid Maculinea teleius found at the Hokkaido University campus

Different habitat selection by two sympatric Maculinea butterflies at small spatial scale

Abstract. 1. Worldwide extinction of species due to habitat loss and habitat degradation can be recognised among butterflies pronouncedly. Therefore, conservation biologists devote special attention to identify the most important ecological factors affecting distribution and survival of butterflies. These efforts have been dominated by landscape‐scale studies, although variation in habitat quality at smaller spatial scales may be of crucial importance. This applies for the highly specialised Maculinea species, which usually do not form classic metapopulations.2. Maculinea nausithous and Maculinea teleius use the same larval food plant and usually occupy the same habitats in Europe. Afforestation of meadows due to abandonment is a major threat for these species. However, few if any studies have assessed the effects that proximity of forest edges may have on the habitat selection by adult butterflies at the scale of local populations. Here, we aimed to test these effects within one habitat fragment based on an intensive mark–release–recapture sampling.3. Distribution of M. nausithous was aggregated and its density was highly positively influenced by the proportion of afforested meadow edges, while M. teleius showed no preference for afforested edges. Despite their different within‐habitat distribution, the movement of both species was restricted to smaller parts of the habitat.4. Our results suggest that M. nausithous has a narrower niche in the study region, which is most likely due to that its only host ant can find suitable microclimatic conditions at the afforested edges of wet meadows. This implies that habitat patches are not equally used by the two species and hence different management approaches are desirable for their conservation.

Development of parasitic Maculinea teleius (Lepidoptera, Lycaenidae) larvae in laboratory nests of four Myrmica ant host species

Maculinea butterflies are social parasites of Myrmica ants. Methods to study the strength of host ant specificity in the Maculinea–Myrmica association include research on chemical and acoustic mimicry as well as experiments on ant adoption and rearing behaviour of Maculinea larvae. Here we present results of laboratory experiments on adoption, survival, development and integration of M. teleius larvae within the nests of different Myrmica host species, with the objective of quantifying the degree of specialization of this Maculinea species. In the laboratory, a total of 94 nests of four Myrmica species: M. scabrinodis, M. rubra, M. ruginodis and M. rugulosa were used. Nests of M. rubra and M. rugulosa adopted M. teleius larvae more readily and quickly than M. ruginodis colonies. No significant differences were found in the survival rates of M. teleius larvae reared by different ant species. Early larval growth of M. teleius larvae differed slightly among nests of four Myrmica host species. Larvae reared by colonies of M. rugulosa which were the heaviest at the beginning of larval development had the lowest mean larval body mass after 18 weeks compared to those reared by other Myrmica species. None of the M. teleius larvae was carried by M. scabrinodis or M. rubra workers after ant nests were destroyed, which suggests a lack of integration with host colonies. Results indicate that Myrmica species coming from the same site differ in their ability to adopt and rear M. teleius larvae but there was no obvious adaptation of this butterfly species to one of the host ant species. This may explain why, under natural conditions, all four ants can be used as hosts of this butterfly species. Slight advantages of particular Myrmica species as hosts at certain points in butterfly larval development can be explained by the ant species biology and colony structure rather than by specialization of M. teleius.

Not only the butterflies: managing ants on road verges to benefit Phengaris (Maculinea) butterflies

Obligate myrmecophilic butterfly species, such as Phengaris (Maculinea) teleius and P. nausithous, have narrow habitat requirements. Living as a caterpillar in the nests of the ant species Myrmica scabrinodis and M. rubra, respectively, they can only survive on sites with both host ants and the host plant Great Burnet Sanguisorba officinalis. After having been reintroduced into a nature reserve in the Netherlands in 1990, both butterfly species expanded their distribution to linear landscape elements such as road verges and ditch edges outside this reserve. As additional habitat of both butterfly species, vegetation management of these landscape elements became important. Our results show that a management beneficial for Phengaris butterflies should aim to increase the nest density of Myrmica species, at the same time reducing the density of nests of the competitor Lasius niger or at least keeping them at a low density. Unfavourable grassland management under which L. niger thrives, includes not mowing or flail-cutting the grass, or depositing dredgings along the side of the ditch. Management favourable for the two Myrmica species differs, demanding some flexibility if both species are to benefit. M. scabrinodis is best supported with early mowing of the road verge vegetation or late mowing in the nature reserve, both of which result in an open vegetation and warm microclimate. In contrast, the nest sites of M. rubra should be left undisturbed during the summer, and mown in late autumn. Mowing of butterfly habitat should be avoided between mid-June and mid-September as this would remove the flowerheads of the Sanguisorba plants, on which the butterflies lay their eggs.

Local host ant specificity of Phengaris (Maculinea) teleius butterfly, an obligatory social parasite of Myrmica ants

1. Phengaris butterflies are obligatory social parasites of Myrmica ants. Early research suggested that there is a different Myrmica host species for each of the five European Phengaris social parasites, but more recent studies have shown that this was an oversimplification.2. The pattern of host ant specificity within a Phengaris teleius metapopulation from southern Poland is reported. A combination of studying the frequency distribution of Phengaris occurrence and morphometrics on adult butterflies were used to test whether use of different host species is reflected in larval development.3. Phengaris teleius larvae were found to survive in colonies of four Myrmica species: M. scabrinodis, M. rubra, M. ruginodis, and M. rugulosa. Myrmica scabrinodis was the most abundant species under the host plant but the percentage of infested nests was similar to other host ant species at two sites and lower in comparison to nests of M. rubra and M. ruginodis at the other two sites. Morphometric measurements of adult butterflies reared by wild colonies of M. scabrinodis and M. ruginodis showed that wing size and number of wing spots were slightly greater for adults eclosing from nests of M. ruginodis.4. Our results suggest that P. teleius in the populations studied is less specialised than previously suggested. The results are consistent with the hypothesis that P. teleius is expected to be the least specific of the European Phengaris species, as it has the largest and best defended fourth‐instar caterpillars and, as a predatory species, it spends less time in the central larval chambers of the host colonies. The fact that individuals reared by M. ruginodis had wider hind wings may suggest that P. teleius had better access to resources in M. ruginodis than in M. scabrinodis colonies.

What limits the spread of two congeneric butterfly species after their reintroduction: quality or spatial arrangement of habitat?

AbstractPopulation growth and spread of recently reintroduced species is crucial for the success of their reintroduction. We analysed what limits the spread of two congeneric butterfly species Maculinea teleius and Maculinea nausithous, over 10 years following their reintroduction. During this time, their distributions appeared to be limited to a few sites although it was thought that more suitable habitats were available. Thus, we question, does the quality or the spatial arrangement of their habitat limit their spread? Although adult individuals of both species can select high‐quality plots, we show that selection of suitable plots in the area of reintroduction is spatially constrained. A low colonization probability of unoccupied distant plots of high quality was found for both species. The abandonment of occupied plots in Ma. teleius was also found to be dependent on the distance to occupied plots. We conclude that the spatial distribution of the two species during the 10 years following reintroduction was limited by the spatial arrangement of their habitat, rather than by the availability of high‐quality plots. The spatial constraints in movement can explain observed source–sink structures when female butterflies deposit their eggs on low‐quality plots. We conclude that although these species have very similar life histories, they require different approaches to their conservation due to subtle differences in adult habitat use and movement. Conservation of Ma. teleius should concentrate on improving local habitat quality, whereas conservation of Ma. nausithous is predicted to be more effective by creating a spatial network of suitable habitat plots, such as along road verges.

Habitat requirements and niche selection of Maculinea nausithous and M. teleius (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) within a large sympatric metapopulation

Identifying the factors determining the distribution and abundance of species is a fundamental question in population ecology. Based on habitat characteristics, we sought to identify factors affecting the abundance of two vulnerable large blue butterflies, Maculinea teleius and Maculinea nausithous. Both species often occur in sympatry and thus seem to have very similar requirements with regard to their wetland habitats. Even though, M. nausithous is usually far more widespread and abundant than M. teleius in Central Europe. For understanding this difference despite a similar ecology, more data is needed on the niche selection of both species. We have recorded Maculinea numbers, vegetation structure, food-plant abundance and ant community for 120 patches within a large sympatric metapopulation of both species in the Westerwald area (Germany). Unexpectedly (based on previous data), both species were equally common in the study area, reaching high densities of up to 61 (M. teleius) and 58 (M. nausithous) individuals per 50 m². In 116 out of 120 patches both species occurred sympatrically. The preferred habitat was extensively managed grassland, being mown or grazed twice a year. The abundance of both Maculinea species was positively related to vegetation height, food-plant and Myrmica rubra abundance. There was no association between M. teleius and its putative main host-ant Myrmica scabrinodis, indicating that M. rubra may serve as an important host in the Westerwald area. The positive effect of food-plant abundance was more pronounced for M. teleius, coinciding with a higher food-plant abundance at sites dominated by M. teleius compared to those dominated by M. nausithous. Thus, M. teleius seems to be slightly more demanding than M. nausithous in terms of food-plant availability.

Species-specific distribution of two sympatric Maculinea butterflies across different meadow edges

An important consequence of habitat fragmentation is the increase of edge habitats. Environmental factors in the edges are different from those in the interiors, which causes changes in the distribution of plant and animal species. We aimed to study how edges affect the distribution of two butterfly species within meadow fragments. We therefore investigated the effect of distance from edge and edge type (road edge versus tree edge) on two sympatric large blue species (Maculinea teleius and M. nausithous). Our results showed that edge type had contrasting effects on the two species. M. teleius favoured both interiors and road edges, while M. nausithous preferred the tree edges. In the case of the latter species a strong positive edge effect was also found. This kind of within-habitat niche segregation is probably related to the different microenvironmental conditions at the edges. Foodplant density did not seem to limit the distribution of these species. Our results suggest that interiors of meadows are important for M. teleius, while tree edges maintain the habitats of the regionally rarer butterfly, M. nausithous.

Butterflies (Lepidoptera: Hesperioidea, Papilionoidea) of the Kampinos National Park and its buffer zone

Poland; e-mail: marcins@uwb.edu.pl Abstract: Kampinos National Park is the second largest protected area in Poland and therefore a potentially important stronghold for biodiversity in the Mazovia region. However it has been abandoned as an area of lepidopterological studies for a long time. A total number of 80 butterfly species were recorded during inventory studies (2005–2008), which proved the occurrence of 80 species (81.6% of species recorded in the Mazovia voivodeship and about half of Polish fauna), including 7 from the European Red Data Book and 15 from the national red list (8 protected by law). Several xerothermophilous species have probably become extinct in the last few decades (Colias myrmidone, Pseudophilotes vicrama, Melitaea aurelia, Hipparchia statilinus, H. alcyone ), or are endangered in the KNP and in the region (e.g. Maculinea arion, Melitaea didyma), due to afforestation and spontaneous succession. Higrophilous butterflies have generally suffered less from recent changes in land use, but action to stop the deterioration of their habitats is urgently needed. Lycaena dispar, Maculinea teleius and M. alcon are still quite widespread but L. helle and Euphydras aurinia were recorded on single sites only. However, Maculinea nausithous was observed only in 2005 and has probably just disappeared from the KNP. Despite the aforementioned losses, the Kampinos Forest deserves to be added to the list of the Prime Butterfly Areas in Europe. Key words: butterflies, biodiversity, Kampinos National Park, fauna of Poland, endangered species

Looking for the ants: selection of oviposition sites by two myrmecophilous butterfly species

AbstractObligate myrmecophilous butterfly species, such as Maculinea teleius and M. nausithous that hibernate as caterpillar in nests of the ant species Myrmica scabrinodis and M. rubra respectively, have narrowly defined habitat requirements. One would expect that these butterflies are able to select for sites that meet all their requirements. Both butterfly species occur in habitats where their initial larval resource, the host plant Sanguisorba officinalis, is abundant, while the ant nests are relatively less abundant. With ants in the proximity of a host plant, caterpillars have a chance of being found by their host ant species, while the host plant could become a sink as caterpillars will die when there are no ants close to the host plant. We tested whether females oviposit on host plants in the close proximity of host ants (ant-mediated oviposition) or whether there is random oviposition, using 587 1-m2 plots in and around a nature reserve in The Netherlands where both species were reintroduced. We found that females of both species indeed more often deposit eggs on host plants nearby ants than on host plants without ants. Visits of adult butterflies to plots with the host plant but without the host ants only occurred in years with high butterfly densities. We argue that understanding site selection for oviposition is important for these highly endangered butterfly species with a specialised life cycle, especially after disturbances or reintroductions.

Investigating Movement within Irregularly Shaped Patches: Analysis of Mark-Release-Recapture Data Using Randomization Procedures

The analysis of net-displacement data extracted from mark-release-recapture (MRR) studies is usually based on the assumption that movement follows a random walk in homogeneous space. Yet given sufficient time, within-patch movement cannot conform to this assumption, as maximum net-displacement must be limited by the patch's dimension. We thus suggest a pragmatic protocol for analyzing such MRR data: (1) Test for correlation between the time intervals between captures and displacement distance; if such a correlation is weak, displacement does not follow the rules of a random walk. (2) Test whether net-displacement observed approaches an even density distribution (null-model). (3) Estimate whether net-displacement is limited by the individual's tendency to restrict movement to sub-regions of a patch. For this purpose we developed two randomization algorithms that generate patch-specific distance distributions given that (i) displacement distances converge to an even distribution and habitat use is homogeneous within patches, or that (ii) the spatial distribution of capture points is heterogeneous. Both methods are expanded to account for the influence of potential movement restrictions beyond those imposed by the patch's dimension. The sequential comparison of empirical distributions with distributions generated by these algorithms allows drawing conclusions about the rules underlying withinpatch movement. We exemplarily apply our protocol to an empirical MRR data set on the butterfly Maculinea teleius. The analysis indicates that habitat use within patches is heterogeneous and that Maculinea possibly establishes home ranges. Such analyses may convey important information about the biology of species and help to develop appropriate conservation strategies.

Microhabitat preferences of Maculinea teleius (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) in a mosaic landscape

The Scarce Large Blue (Maculinea teleius) is an endangered butterfly throughout Europe due to its special life-cycle and habitat loss. Our aims were to describe the microhabitats available to this butterfly, to test what factors influence the presence and density of M. teleius adults and to investigate the relationship between host ant species and M. teleius. The vicinities of eight fens were sampled, where there are four types of microhabitats available for this butterfly: Narrowleaf Cattail (Typha angustifolia), Purple Loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria), Marsh Woundwort (Stachys palustris) and Purple Moorgrass (Molinia coerulea) dominated vegetation. In five transects (50 × 5 m) around each fen (running from the edge of the fen into the meadows) the number of imagos was counted twice a day during the flight period. Along the transects, the following parameters were measured or assessed: number of flowerheads of foodplant (Sanguisorba officinalis), microhabitat type, grazing intensity, soil humidity, vegetation height and host ant presence. The four microhabitat types differed significantly in soil humidity, vegetation height, foodplant density and distance from a fen. Generally the Typha microhabitat, situated closest to fens, had the highest soil humidity and vegetation height, followed by the Lythrum, Stachys and finally the Molinia microhabitat along a gradient decreasing soil humidity and vegetation height. The foodplant was most abundant in the Lythrum and Stachys microhabitats. Using linear mixed models and forward stepwise manual selection we found that microhabitat type was the most important factor determining the presence of M. teleius. The local grazing intensity had no direct effect but flowerheads of the foodplant had a positive effect on the abundance of butterflies. The number of butterflies was significantly higher in quadrats where the host ant (Myrmica scabrinodis) was present compared to those where they were absent. Our results suggest that grazing should be continued in order to maintain the current distribution of microhabitats and survival of the butterflies.

A model-based approach for designing cost-effective compensation payments for conservation of endangered species in real landscapes

An approach is presented which integrates an economic and an ecological model for designing cost-effective compensation payments for conservation of endangered species in real landscapes. The approach is used to develop a cost-effective payment scheme for conservation of an endangered butterfly species ( Maculinea teleius) protected by the EU Habitats Directive in the region of Landau, Germany. The results of the case study are used to analyse the effect of metapopulation dynamics on the cost-effectiveness of payment schemes, to compare spatially homogeneous and heterogeneous payments, and to evaluate existing conservation policies.

A mowing experiment to evaluate the influence of management on the activity of host ants of Maculinea butterflies

Maculinea butterflies obligatory parasitize certain species of Myrmica ants. Thus, the presence of the host ant species is a limiting factor for the survival of a Maculinea population. Here, we analyse the influence of vegetation structure and ground temperature on ant diversity and abundance on Maculinea habitats, with the final aim of identifying the environmental variables determining patterns of variation in species composition in order to recommend a mowing regime that will promote our three target species: Maculinea teleius, M. nausithous and M. alcon. Experimental plots with different mowing regimes were established at eight sites in South-Eastern Germany, a region which still contains a number of relatively large, stable populations of these threatened butterfly species. Among the seven different ant species recorded, four belong to the genus Myrmica (M. scabrinodis, M. rubra, M. ruginodis and M. vandeli). Among these, M. scabrinodis results most abundant at all sites. In a CCA analysis of environmental variables recorded at the studied plots, ant species diversity appears largely determined by litter cover, mean temperature, and mean grass cover. Mowing once a year, in the second half of September, after the larvae have left their host plants, enhances the abundance of Myrmica ants in the meadows, and would be the best management compromise for all three species.

Genetic differentiation among the Maculinea species (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) in eastern Central Europe

The present study aimed to analyse the level of genetic variation in the eastern Central European (Slovenia, Hungary, and Romania/Transylvania) populations of the Large Blues (Maculinea) to analyse the pattern of differentiation both between and within the species. One objective was to compare the level of differentiation between the two disputed species (Maculinea alcon and Maculinea rebeli) with that among the other species. Imagos were collected from 23 localities in eastern Central Europe in 2002. Enzyme polymorphism was analysed using polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Fourteen enzyme loci were studied in all samples. In the analysis of the data, F-statistics and Nei’s genetic distances were calculated and a dendrogram (unweighted pair group method with arithmetic mean) was constructed on the basis of the distance matrix. A multivariate analysis of variance was performed to study the pattern of genetic differentiation among the samples. Principal component analysis analysis was also carried out using the allele frequency data of the samples. Our results indicated that the large blues are generally less polymorphic than other European lycaenid butterflies studied. At the same time, the level of genetic differentiation was high, even among local populations within the species. A low level of genetic variation within the populations coupled with strong differentiation among them implies the effect of genetic drift. Strong genetic differentiation of four Maculinea species (M. alcon, Maculinea teleius, Maculinea nausithous, and Maculinea arion) was confirmed. Significant differentiation was not found between M. alcon and M. rebeli. © 2007 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2007, 91, 11–21.