Low Parental Education Level Research Articles

Transportation Infrastructure and Family Educational Expectations: An Empirical Analysis Based on the China Family Panel Survey

Based on data from the China Statistical Yearbook and China Family Panel Survey (CFPS), this article investigated the influence of regional transportation infrastructure development on family education expectations. Research results show that there is a significant positive correlation between transportation infrastructure and family educational expectations and that the improvement of transportation infrastructure can enhance the family’s willingness to engage their children in higher education. According to the results of influencing mechanism analysis, transportation infrastructure development affects family education expectations by increasing family income and changing family reproduction concepts and educational ideas. In addition, the impact of transportation infrastructure construction on family education expectations is heterogeneous: the positive correlation between them is particularly significant in rural areas with less developed transportation infrastructure, in areas with low average education level of parents and slow information communication, and among families of lower social classes; however, the relationship between the two variables is not prominent in urban areas, in areas where information communication is fast and parents have a higher average education level, and among families with higher social classes. These research findings offer the nation and government new implications for better promoting poverty alleviation through education and rural revitalization in underdeveloped areas.

Relationship between the Dietary Inflammatory Index and Cardiovascular Health among Children.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the relationship between the Dietary Inflammatory Index (DII®) and cardiovascular health indicators in children. The sample consisted of 365 schoolchildren aged 8 to 12 from the Region of Madrid. Anthropometric and hemodynamic measurements were collected. Variables relating to habits and lifestyles, parental level of education, and data on their diet, through three 24 h food recall surveys, were also collected. The diet quality indicators considered are the DII based on 25 nutrients and the KIDMED index. Children with a more pro-inflammatory diet came from families with lower levels of parental education (p < 0.05). Predictive models show that in the group with a more pro-inflammatory diet (>P50), the likelihood of developing hypertension in childhood is 2.1 times higher (OR = 2.085 (1.107-3.927)) and they have more than twice the risk of developing obesity (OR = 2.3) or developing obesity and hypertension simultaneously (OR = 1.290 (1.316-3.985)). Furthermore, predictive models showed that the children with a pro-inflammatory diet (>P50) had higher values for BFM% (β = 1.957; p = 0.026) and BMI (β = 0.015; p = 0.012) than children with a lower inflammatory diet (<P50). Higher values on the DII are related to poorer nutritional status and cardiovascular health in childhood. Thus, a pro-inflammatory diet is also associated with a lower socio-economic level and poorer diet quality.

ANALISIS FAKTOR PENYEBAB ANAK PUTUS SEKOLAH JENJANG SEKOLAH MENENGAH PERTAMA DI DESA MAJU KARYA KECAMATAN PARINDU KABUPATEN SANGGAU

This study describes the causes of students at the junior high school level in Desa Maju Karya, Kecamatan Parindu of Kabupaten Sanggau, drop out of school. This study identifies the factors causing children in the studied area to drop out of school. This study analyzes the factors that cause children to drop out of school in Maju Karya Village, Parindu District, Sanggau Regency. Qualitative approach with a descriptive method was employed in this study. The research data was obtained using observation, interviews, and documentation. Data reduction, data display, and drawing conclusions were employed to analyze the data. The data validity was verified using triangulation technique. Based on the analysis, the researchers found two factors causing children to drop out of school, namely internal factors, which include a sense of laziness and lack of interest in learning; and external factors which include the low level of parental education, lack of parental attention, broken families, weak economy, and peers that have a negative influence.

Systematic review on the prevalence and factors associated with childhood overweight and obesity in Malaysia

Background: Obesity in children is the world's most serious health problem, and it has been connected to death. Children who are obese are more prone to experience major health issues. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to systematically review the prevalence of childhood overweight and obesity in Malaysia and its associated factors. Materials and Methods: Three main databases were adopted in this review and study was done according to the PRISMA flow diagram. After being reviewed for stringent inclusion and exclusion criteria, the data were retrieved and compiled in Microsoft Excel. For quality evaluation, the articles included were appraised by using Newcastle-Ottawa scale. Result: The first search yielded 4121 articles for review and left with 21 articles after eliminating duplicates and applying inclusion criteria. All of data from the review were divided into five primary domains. Based on our data, we concluded that the prevalence of overweight and obesity in Malaysian children ranged from 23.8% to 58.0%. The ultimate risk for childhood overweight and obesity was due to genetics, followed by low education level of parents, physically inactive and others.

Seroconversion rate and socio-economic and ethnic risk factors for SARS-CoV-2 infection in children in a population-based cohort, Germany, June 2020 to February 2021.

IntroductionSocio-economic and ethnic background have been discussed as possible risk factors for SARS-CoV-2 infections in children. Improved knowledge could lead to tailored prevention strategies and help improve infection control.AimWe aimed to identify risk factors for SARS-CoV-2 infections in children in the first and second wave of the pandemic.MethodsWe performed an observational population-based cohort study in children (6 months–18 years) scheduled for legally required preventive examination and their parents in a metropolitan region in Germany. Primary endpoint was the SARS-CoV-2 seroconversion rate during the study period. Risk factors assessed included age, pre-existing medical conditions, socio-economic factors and ethnicity.ResultsWe included 2,124 children and their parents. Seroconversion rates among children in all age groups increased 3–4-fold from June 2020 to February 2021. Only 24 of 58 (41%) seropositive children reported symptoms. In 51% of infected children, at least one parent was also SARS-CoV-2-positive. Low level of parental education (OR = 3.13; 95% CI: 0.72–13.69) non-significantly increased the risk of infection. Of the total cohort, 38.5% had a migration background, 9% of Turkish and 5% of Middle Eastern origin, and had the highest risk for SARS-CoV-2 infections (OR = 6.24; 95% CI: 1.38–28.12 and OR = 6.44 (95% CI: 1.14–36.45) after adjustment for other risk factors.ConclusionIn the second half of 2020, seroprevalence for SARS-CoV-2 in children increased especially in families with lower-socioeconomic status. Culture-sensitive approaches are essential to limit transmission and could serve as a blueprint for vaccination strategies.

Profiles of Functioning in 5.5-Year-Old Very Preterm Born Children in France: The EPIPAGE-2 Study.

Very preterm born children are at risk for impairments in multiple neurodevelopmental domains, but outcomes vary between individuals. The present study aimed to distinguish subgroups with distinct profiles of functioning across motor, cognitive, behavioral, and psychosocial domains. These profiles were related to neonatal and social/environmental factors. The sample included 1977 children born very preterm (<32 weeks' gestation) in 2011 from the French population-based EPIPAGE-2 cohort. Using latent profile analysis, subgroups of children were distinguished based on their functioning at 5.5 years. The relation between outcome profiles and neonatal and social/environmental factors was tested using multivariable multinomial logistic regression analysis. Four subgroups with distinct outcome profiles were distinguished: no deficit in any domain (45%); motor and cognitive deficits without behavioral/psychosocial deficits (31%); primarily behavioral and psychosocial deficits (16%); and deficits in multiple domains (8%). Male sex (odds ratio [OR]= 2.1-2.7), bronchopulmonary dysplasia (OR= 2.1-2.8), low parental education level (OR= 1.8-2.1), and parental non-European immigrant status (OR= 2.3-3.0) were independently associated with higher odds for all suboptimal outcome profiles compared to the favorable outcome profile. Among 5.5-year-old very preterm born children, subgroups can be distinguished with distinct outcome profiles that vary in severity, type, and combinations of deficits. This information is important for the development of interventions that are tailored to the needs of large subgroups of children across multiple domains of functioning. General neonatal and social/environmental factors may be useful for early identification of very preterm born children at risk for general rather than domain-specific impairments.

Long-term exposure to ambient black carbon is associated with sleep disturbance in college students

BackgroundEvidence suggests an association of air pollution with sleep quality. However, there is limited knowledge regarding the effect of black carbon, a key component of ambient particulate matter, on sleep. ObjectivesTo investigate the association of long-term exposure to black carbon and sleep quality in a group of college students. MethodsA retrospective cohort study was conducted in five universities in different regions of China. The concentrations of black carbon and other environment factors were defined as the averages during the 6 years prior to the recruitment. Averagely daily dose of black carbon exposure was estimated according to the respiratory rate. Sleep quality was measured by the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) with a cutoff >5 indicating sleep disturbance. Linear regression and logistic regression models were used to estimate the association. The sensitivity analyses were conducted to estimate the effects of 1-month, 6-month and 1-year mean levels of exposure to black carbon on sleep quality. ResultsA total of 20,053 incoming college students were included. 29.3% reported impaired sleep quality, with a mean PSQI score of 4.3 ± 2.2. The logistic regression showed that the risk of impaired sleep quality was positively associated with black carbon exposure, especially in the highest quantile (OR: 1.26, 95% CI: 1.11–1.43) compared with the lowest quartile after adjusting for potential confounders. Subgroup analysis showed that the effect of black carbon on sleep quality was stronger in participants with higher BMI, lower household income, and lower parental educational level. The results of sensitivity analyses were similar with main analyses. ConclusionLong-term exposure to black carbon is associated with sleep disturbance in college students. Improvement of air quality may help improve sleep quality.

Social Determinants of Health and Distance Learning in Italy in the Era of the SARS-CoV-2 Pandemic.

Objectives: To investigate the experiences by distance learning (DL) method during the first wave of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic in Italy, and to search for correlations with purported experiences and respective levels of social determinants of health (SDH). Study design and methods: Cross-sectional online survey, investigating various SDH and parents’ attitude towards DL, proposed 6 months after the beginning of the pandemic to a sample population of parents with school-aged children throughout Italy. Results: A total of 3791 questionnaires were analyzed. Non-Italian parents complained more frequently of difficulties in providing support to their children in DL due to poor digital skills (p = 0.01), lack of good-quality digital equipment (p = 0.01), problems with the Italian language (p < 0.001), and a lower level of education (p < 0.001). When parents lived apart, greater difficulties in concentration in children using DL (p = 0.05) and a lower parental capacity to support DL (p = 0.002) were reported. Adequate digital structures appeared related to living in owned compared to rented property, higher levels of parental education, and better familial financial situations. Conclusions: Students from families with financial difficulties and low levels of parental education, or even those living in houses for rent or having separated parents, may be disadvantaged in an educational context since the introduction of DL.

EFFORTS OF CHILDREN DISCONTINUED SCHOOL IN DESA BUATA, KECAMATAN BOTUPINGGE, KABUPATEN BONE BOLANGO

This study aims to determine the causes and efforts to overcome school dropouts in Buata Village, Botupingge District, Bone Bolango Regency.&#x0D; The method used is a qualitative method with descriptive analysis. Data collection tools are to use observation guidelines, and interviews and documentation.&#x0D; The results of the study are:1) the causes of children dropping out of school, characterized by poor economic conditions, low parental education levels, children's desire to help their parents work, and due to peer influence; 2) efforts to overcome school dropouts are still lacking, marked by a lack of motivation and assistance from parents in the child's learning process, lack of parental supervision and encouragement, parents also let children work to help ease the workload of parents, but parents do not indulge. children by giving excessive pocket money.

Bullied Because of Their Teeth: Evidence from a Longitudinal Study on the Impact of Oral Health on Bullying Victimization among Australian Indigenous Children.

Making life better for Indigenous peoples is a global priority. Although bullying and oral health have always been a topic of concern, there is limited information regarding the impact of this problem on the general population, with no evidence in this regard among the Australian Indigenous population. Thus, we aimed to quantify the relationship between bullying victimization and oral health problems by remoteness among 766 Australian Indigenous children aged between 10–15-years using data from the LSIC study. Bivariate and multilevel mixed-effect logistic regression analyses were employed. Findings indicated children self-reported bullying more than parents reported their children were being bullied (44% vs. 33.6%), with a higher percentage from rural/remote areas than urban areas. Parents reported that oral health problems increased the probability (OR 2.20, p < 0.05) of being bullied, in Indigenous children living in urban areas. Racial discrimination, lower level of parental education and poor child oral hygiene increase the risk of bullying victimization. Parental happiness with life and a safe community were associated with a lower risk of bullying. Dental problems are linked with Australian Indigenous children experiencing bullying victimization. Cultural resilience and eliminating discrimination may be two modifiable paths to ameliorating health issues associated with bullying in the Australian Indigenous community.

Assessment of heterogeneous Head Start treatment effects on cognitive and social-emotional outcomes

Head Start is a federally funded, nation-wide program in the U.S. for enhancing school readiness of children aged 3–5 from low-income families. Understanding heterogeneity in treatment effects (HTE) is an important task when evaluating programs, but most attempts to explore HTE in Head Start have been limited to subgroup analyses that rely on average treatment effects by subgroups. This study applies an extension of multilevel modelling, complex variance modelling, to data from a randomized controlled trial of Head Start, Head Start Impact Study (HSIS). The treatment effects on the variance, in addition to the mean, of nine cognitive and social-emotional outcomes were assessed for 4,442 children aged 3–4 years who were followed until their 3rd grade year. Head Start had positive short-term effects on the means of multiple cognitive outcomes while having no effect on the means of social-emotional outcomes. Head Start reduced the variances of multiple cognitive and one social-emotional outcomes, meaning that substantial HTE exists. In particular, the increased mean and decreased variance reflect the ability of Head Start to improve the outcomes and reduce their variability. Exploratory secondary analyses suggested that larger benefits for children with Spanish as a primary language and low parental educational level partly explained the reduced variability, but the HTE remained and the variability was reduced even within these subgroups. Routinely monitoring the treatment effects on the variance, in addition to the mean, would lead to a more comprehensive program evaluation that describes how a program performs on average and on the entire distribution.

THE PREVALENCE OF POST-TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER AMONG SCHOOL-AGED ADOLESCENTS IN JAIL

Aim: Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is related to trauma and stress; this disorder can affect anyone after having experienced a stressful traumatic event. The survey was conducted to assess the prevalence of PTSD in an incarcerated school-aged adolescent of the centre of reform and discipline of the prefecture of Salé in Morocco. In addition, to study the level of anxiety and depression which present the most associated disorders of PTSD.&#x0D; Methods: Fifty-two male students were selected who continued their study in the prison school. The age of these students were between 13 and 17 years. The validated questionnaires (CPTS-RI, STAIY and CDI) were used and completed by the students for this survey which carried out during the period from March to June 2017.&#x0D; Results: Given the specificity of students characterized by detention and poverty and low level of parental education, we found 55.77% of prevalence of PTSD. While for PTSD co-morbidities among adolescents, 84.62% were found to have anxiety and 82.70% to have depression. The most traumatic event that caused post-traumatic stress disorder was detention with 44.20% and 90.40% of students who have poor grades. If the level of PTSD increased, the academic results decreased (p &lt;0.001). If the level of PTSD increased, the level of anxiety and depression increased (p &lt; 0.001 and p = 0.024).&#x0D; Conclusion: With the important prevalence of PTSD in an incarcerated school-aged adolescent, the negative impact of this disorder can be significant on the well-being of these adolescents. There are practical implications for supporting and healing these adolescents with this disorder.

Pathways of Parental Education on Children's and Adolescent's Body Mass Index: The Mediating Roles of Behavioral and Psychological Factors.

AimThe increasing body mass index (BMI) often followed by overweight and obesity is a global health problem of the 21st century. Children and adolescents with lower socioeconomic status are more affected than their counterparts. The mechanisms behind these differences must be well understood to develop effective prevention strategies. This analysis aims at examining the association of parental education as an indicator of the socioeconomic status on children's and adolescent's body mass index and the role of behavioral and psychological risk factors for a higher BMI longitudinally.MethodsThe analysis was based on a nationwide sample of N = 460 children and adolescents, aged 11 to 17 at baseline (2009–2012), who took part in the representative BELLA study, the mental health module of the German National Health Interview and Examination Survey among Children and Adolescents (KiGGS). A follow-up was conducted 5 years later. Using mediation analyses, the mediating effects of breakfast consumption, consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages, screen time, physical activity, mental health problems (Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire), and health-related quality of life (KIDSCREEN-10) on the association of parent's years of education on their children's BMI were investigated.ResultsA lower level of parental education was significantly associated with a higher BMI in children and adolescents 5 years later. The association was partially mediated by breakfast consumption and total screen time, with breakfast consumption mediating 16.7% and total screen time 27.8% of the association. After controlling for age, gender, and migration status, only breakfast consumption remained a partial mediator (8.5%). Other included variables had no mediating effects.ConclusionsPreventive measures should be mainly targeted at children and adolescents of parents with lower educational levels. Tailored strategies to prevent the development of overweight and obesity in this population among children and adolescents should promote daily breakfast consumption at home and reducing screen time.

Prevalence and determinants of fever, ARI and diarrhea among children aged 6\u201359\xa0months in Bangladesh

BackgroundAlthough efforts have been made by the international community to improve childhood health, risk factors linked with the healthiness of preschool-age children in low and middle-income countries (LMICs) are very diverse. Therefore, this paper examines the prevalence and determinants of fever, acute respiratory infection and diarrhea of preschool children in Bangladesh.MethodsA sample of 8,421 children from the latest country representative BDHS-2017–18 survey was analyzed by utilizing both the bivariate and multivariate techniques.ResultsThe results revealed that about 4.7, 33.1, and 35.8% of the children aged under 5 years had suffered from diarrhea, fever and ARI respectively during the 2 weeks preceding the date of the survey. Demographic, socio-economic, and community and health characteristics likely to play an important role in suffering under-five children from diarrhea, fever, and ARI in Bangladesh. The child’s age of 13–24 months, delivery by cesarean section, unsafe drinking water, unhygienic toilet facility, low level of family wealth index and parental education, a higher number of living children in the household, rural residency and regional difference were all found to be most crucial determinants of the occurrences of fever, ARI and diarrhea.ConclusionInterventions should focus on improving these significant demographic, socioeconomic, and community and health risk factors. A special attention is necessary to the people who live in rural areas and geospatially disadvantaged regions.

Adolescent attachment to parents and peers in singletons and twins born with assisted and natural conception.

STUDY QUESTIONDoes adolescent attachment to parents and peers differ between singletons and twins born with ART or natural conception (NC)?SUMMARY ANSWERAdolescent attachment anxiety with the father was higher among NC singletons than among ART and NC twins, whereas attachment avoidance with the father was higher in ART singletons than in NC singletons and NC twins. No differences were found in attachment to the mother, best friend or romantic partner.WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADYMost studies have not found differences between ART and NC singletons in parent–adolescent relationships, but twin relationships may be more at risk. No previous study has examined all four groups in the same study, or specifically looked at attachment relationships.STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATIONThis was an 18-year, prospective and controlled longitudinal study with families of 496 ART singletons, 101 ART twin pairs, 476 NC singletons and 22 NC twin pairs. Families were recruited during the second trimester of pregnancy; the ART group was recruited from five infertility clinics in Finland and the control group was recruited from a hospital outpatient clinic during a routine visit.PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODSMothers and fathers gave background information for this study during pregnancy, and during the child’s first year and early school age (7–8 years). For the ART group, infertility characteristics and prenatal medical information was also obtained from the patient registry of the infertility clinics. Children (originally 50% girls) filled in electronic questionnaires related to their attachment to mother, father, best friend and romantic partner (Experiences in Close Relationships—Relationship Structures) at 17–19 years of age.MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCEAdolescent attachment anxiety to father was higher in NC singletons than in ART twins, P = 0.004 and marginally higher than in NC twins, P = 0.06. Adolescent attachment avoidance to father was higher in ART singletons than in NC singletons, P = 0.006 and marginally higher than in NC twins, P = 0.055.LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTIONThe sample size was small especially in the NC twin group and there was drop-out over the 18-year time period, especially among boys and families with lower parental education level. The study only included native Finnish-speaking families. The results could differ in a more diverse population. ART singletons were younger and had fewer siblings than ART twins and NC children, and ART and NC twins had more newborn health risks than ART and NC singletons.WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGSThe study adds to a growing body of evidence that neither ART treatments nor being a twin places mother–child relationships or peer relationships at long-term risk. However, in our study, which was the first to examine both ART and twinhood simultaneously, we found that there may be more problems in father–adolescent relationships, but only in ART singletons and only related to attachment avoidance. Our findings suggest that men, as well as women, should receive enough support in pre- and peri-natal health care during and after infertility treatments.STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTEREST(S)This study was funded by Academy of Finland (grant number 2501308988), the Juho Vainio Foundation and the Finnish Cultural Foundation. The authors report no conflict of interest.TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBERN/A.

An observational study on the effects of early and late risk factors on the development of childhood obesity in the South of Italy

&#x0D; Background: Child obesity is today one of the greatest health emergencies, on such a large scale as to be considered a global epidemic by the WHO and, unfortunately, Italy holds the worst European record.&#x0D; Methods: We conducted an observational study to investigate the effects of early and late risk factors on the development of primary childhood obesity. We collected anthropometric parameters, information about early risk markers and late risk factors on a sample of 280 children from March 2016 to December 2017.&#x0D; Results: Statistically significant associations emerged between: child's BMI and education level of the mother (p&lt;0.001) and the father (p&lt;0.05); level of parents' education and qualitative variables (subjects’ physical activity level (p&lt;0.05), consumption of carbonated beverages (p&lt;0.05), fruit juices (p &lt;0.05) and snacks (p&lt;0.05); BMI and the presence or absence of a family history of obesity, DM and cardiovascular diseases. Significant linear correlations were found between weight classification (overweight/obese) and the consumption of carbonated drinks (p&lt;0.05), snack consumption (p&lt;0.05), physical activity levels (p&lt;0.001) and duration of sleep in the afternoon (p&lt;0.05).&#x0D; Conclusions: In our sample we found incorrect eating habits to be frequently linked to a low level of parental education; particularly for the mother, the main childcare provider.&#x0D;

Measuring retention within the adolescent brain cognitive development (ABCD)SM study

The Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD)SM study aims to retain a demographically diverse sample of youth and one parent across 21 sites throughout its 10-year protocol while minimizing selective (systematic) attrition. To evaluate the effectiveness of these efforts, the ABCD Retention Workgroup (RW) has employed a data-driven approach to examine, track, and intervene via three key metrics: (1) which youth completed visits late; (2) which youth missed visits; and (3) which youth withdrew from the study. The RW actively examines demographic (race, education level, family income) and site factors (visit satisfaction, distance from site, and enrollment in ancillary studies) to strategize efforts that will minimize disengagement and loss of participating youth and parents. Data showed that the most robust primary correlates of late visits were distance from study site, race, and parental education level. Race, lower parental education level, parental employment status, and lower family income were associated with higher odds of missed visits, while being enrolled in one of the ancillary studies was associated with lower odds of missed visits. Additionally, parents who were primary Spanish speakers withdrew at slightly higher rates. These findings provide insight into future targets for proactive retention efforts by the ABCD RW.

Dietary disparities among adolescents according to individual and school socioeconomic status: a multilevel analysis

This study aimed to estimate disparities in dietary habits according to the individual and contextual socioeconomic status (SES), while taking into account school nutrition-related characteristics. Data came from the 2018 cross-sectional “Health Behaviour in School-aged Children” (HBSC) survey. Multilevel multiple logistic regressions were performed. Over two-thirds of the observed variance was explained by individual and school characteristics, with SES being the main contributors. For example, 76.9% of the variance in daily sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) intake was explained by individual and school characteristics. Adolescents of a secondary or lower parental education level were more likely to consume SSB daily than those of a post-secondary level (aOR = 1.46 (1.29–1.66)). Compared to those in a high SES school, the odds to consume SSB daily was higher for adolescents in low SES schools (aOR = 2.37(1.90–2.96)). These findings support the need for schools to pursue a consistent nutrition policy, with an increased support in low socioeconomic populations.

Identifying autism symptom severity trajectories across childhood

AbstractAn individual's autism symptom severity level can change across childhood. The prevalence and direction of change, however, are still not well understood. Nor are the characteristics of children that experience change. Symptom severity trajectories were evaluated from early to middle childhood (approximately ages 3–11) for 182 autistic children. Symptom severity change was evaluated using individual change scores and the Reliable Change Index. Fifty‐one percent of participants experienced symptom severity change: 27% of children decreased in severity, 24% increased and 49% were stable. Symptom severity decreases were more common during early childhood. Severity increases occurred at both early and middle childhood but increase in social affect severity was especially prominent during middle childhood. Most children experienced significant change during only one period and remained stable during the other. Girls decreased more and increased less in symptom severity than boys. Children that increased in severity decreased in adaptive functioning across childhood. Exploratory analyses indicated that a decrease in severity was associated with higher parental education level and older parental age at the time of the child's birth. Conversely, increase in autism severity was associated with lower parental education level and younger parental age at the child's birth. These findings extend recent observations that symptom severity change is more likely than previously appreciated. An understanding of the role of both biological and sociodemographic factors in determining a child's symptom trajectory may factor into future decisions on allocation and type of interventions distributed to young autistic children.Lay SummaryWe studied whether a child's autism severity changed from initial diagnosis until middle childhood (ages 3–11). We found that 27% of the children decreased in severity, 24% increased and the rest stayed the same. Symptom severity decreases were more common during early childhood while severity increases were more prominent during middle childhood. We also found that girls were more likely to decrease than boys. Whether a child decreased or increased is related, in part, to parental characteristics.

Barriers to Parental Involvement in the Education of Learners with Intellectual Disabilities

This study is an in-depth qualitative literature review on the barriers to parental involvement in the education of learners with intellectual disabilities. The review adopted Paulo Freire’s theory in an attempt to illustrate the significant role that parents are supposed to play in the education of their children with intellectual disabilities. The findings revealed that the barriers to enhanced parental involvement in the education of learners with intellectual disabilities include: low level of parental education, teachers’ negative attitude towards both the affected learners and their parents, economic constraints, stigmatization of intellectual disabilities, lack of support, parental stress/depression, lack of knowledge and skills, the number of siblings in the family, mismatched expectations (between parents and teachers), absence of legal/policy frameworks on parental involvement, absence of clear channels of communication between parents and school personnel and, the severity of the child’s disability. As a result of the findings, some suggestions to enhance parental involvement in the education of learners with intellectual disabilities are given, these include: parental education, economic emancipation of the parents, change of teachers’ attitude, specialized training for all persons handling learners with intellectual disability, establishment of positive home-school working relationships, proper legislation on handling people with disabilities, civic education on human rights and development of a policy framework to guide school-home collaborations.