Low-carbon Energy Sources Research Articles

ANALYSIS OF KEY DIRECTIONS AND PROPOSALS TO MINIMISE THE ECONOMIC IMPACT OF THE GLOBAL ENERGY TRANSITION ON LARGE ENERGY-INTENSIVE INDUSTRIAL CONSUMERS OF ELECTRICITY AND CAPACITY

Over the past decade, the global energy sector has undergone major fundamental and structural changes as part of the global energy transition. The energy industry of the Russian Federation, as a key player in the global energy market and the world economy as a whole, is undergoing similar changes. In this case, in terms of ensuring high competitiveness and long-term energy security of the state, it is crucial to set priorities and build models of sustainable development for each of the industries related to the energy sector. Indeed, the process of replacing carbon-intensive energy sources with a systematic increase in the share of new, renewable energy sources (RES) should be gradual and consistent to avoid imbalances in energy systems and maintain equity for all stakeholders. In this context, the search for advanced, low-carbon energy sources is a priority for the vast majority of countries around the world. In addition, the development of renewable energy is one of the goals of Russia՚s energy strategy until 2035. At the same time, despite the obvious advantages of the Russian power industry such as the absence of dependence on budget funds, the overwhelming majority of private investment in the industry, the availability of effective mechanisms for attracting investment and the basic principle of balancing the interests of all market participants, there are also negative consequences of this approach. The nationwide task of developing the energy system and increasing the availability of electricity on the territory of the Russian Federation in terms of financing is becoming an exclusive burden on electricity consumers themselves; even insignificant risks in their operation can turn into a threat not only to sustainable development, but also to their very existence. In this context, the analysis of key directions and proposals to minimise the economic impact of the global energy transition on large energy-intensive industrial consumers of electricity and capacity is of particular relevance.

Anaerobic digestate management for carbon neutrality and fertilizer use: A review of current practices and future opportunities

Biogas production, a low-carbon energy source, has led to heightened focus on sustainable management of its by-product, anaerobic digestate. The unprocessed digestate poses environmental and safety risks, including greenhouse gas emissions and potential soil contamination. Thus, the development of comprehensive, globally applicable guidelines for sustainable digestate management is crucial. The unique aspect of this review lies in the proposed guidelines, addressing micropollutant presence, prioritizing nutrient conservation, and aligning with carbon neutrality and Sustainable Development Goals. The review methodology involves an exhaustive study of existing literature and innovative valorization methods for anaerobic digestate, including biological, chemical, thermal, and mechanical processes. The review emphasizes the importance of enhancing digestate quality before soil application, thus reducing environmental contamination and improving fertilization properties. This review notably contributes to the understanding of sustainable anaerobic digestate management in the context of carbon neutrality and process circularity, offering valuable insights for future research and practical applications.

An observational study on the microclimate and soil thermal regimes under solar photovoltaic arrays

The high demand for low-carbon energy sources to mitigate climate change has prompted a rapid increase in ground-mounted solar parks. The implementation of photovoltaic (PV) significantly impacted the local climate and ecosystem, which are both poorly understood. To investigate the effects of a typical solar park on the Gobi ecological system, local microclimate and soil thermal regimes were measured year-round under and between PV arrays, at an applied solar park sited in Xinjiang, China. Our results demonstrated their seasonal and diurnal changes. Under solar PV arrays, the mean annual net radiation and wind speed decreased by 92.68 % and 50.53 % respectively. In contrast, PV panels caused an increase of the rear sides air by 10.12 % with 0.87 °C. South-facing PV panels reduced wind speed with the prevailing northerly wind below. In addition, the relative humidity rapidly decreased when snow covered the ground, but slightly increased from April to September. We found the soil under PV panels was cooler and tended to be a sink of energy during spring and summer whereas was more often a source during autumn and winter compared with the soil between PV panels. Observed data developed the understanding of the energy processes of solar parks in Gobi ecosystems and provided evidence to support the sustainable management of the solar park.

Assessing the prospect of bio-methanol fuel in China from a life cycle perspective

Along with rapid industrial development, China has become the world’s largest energy consumer and CO2 emitter. In recent years, bio-methanol has been used as one of the low-carbon alternative energy sources in the transportation sector. This study assessed the development prospects of bio-methanol fuel with corn straw as a common feedstock in China in terms of energy consumption, environmental emissions, and economic costs based on life cycle assessment. In this study, the life cycle of bio-methanol fuel was divided into three stages: biomass growth, biomass collection, and methanol production. The results showed that the energy consumption of methanol extracted from biomass was 51.02 × 104 MJ/ton, CO2 emission was 667.53 kg/ton, and the economic cost was $502.0/ton (UD$ in 2022). Compared with coal-to-methanol fuel, although the life cycle economic cost was increased by 24.46%, the CO2 emission was reduced by 59.39%. If the bio-methanol fuel is applied to the marine industry, which currently has high carbon emissions and operating costs, the carbon emissions could be reduced by 54.01% per km, and the economic cost could be saved by 14.81% per km compared to the conventional diesel fuel. Some policy recommendations for developing bio-methanol in China are provided in the end.

Nuclear hydrogen production through carbonaceous-matter gasification. A physicochemical optimization

To reach the worldwide decarbonisation and the corresponding climate change mitigation, low-carbon energy sources must be used in the near-term and the role of the nuclear energy in pathways to produce net zero emissions is outstanding. This is not only because nuclear energy produces carbon-free energy, but also because it can supply high-temperature process heat to industrial applications such as the hydrogen production. Hydrogen is presently considered as the energy vector of the future to attain these environmental goals.In this paper, the possible use of a nuclear-assisted steam coal gasification process for hydrogen production is investigated in deep. As a modern High Temperature Gas Cooled Reactor (HTGR) is able to produce a gas outlet temperature of 950 °C, the nuclear heat can be transferred to a steam coal gasification plant via an intermediate helium circuit for providing the high-temperature process heat required by the endothermic gasification reactions between the steam and the carbonaceous matter.The nuclear-assisted gasification technology is considered to be attractive for the processing of an Argentine orthoasphaltite that is extracted from a minefield located in Neuquén province. The present research comprises both theoretical and experimental studies, which were addressed to get the necessary information about the optimal conditions for the hydrogen production though the steam gasification process using the Argentine orthoasphaltite as feedstock.A conceptual design of an energy complex for nuclear hydrogen, electricity and liquid fuels production is also proposed. In this conceptual design, the steam coal gasification reactor consists of two concentric vessels specially designed to separate the pyrolysis step occurring at low temperature and the char gasification step that takes place at higher temperatures. In this way, it is possible to give a full use to the volatile compounds that are present in the feedstock and are identified and characterized in this work.

Radiation-induced dry reforming: A negative emission process

The reaction between the most abundant greenhouse gases (GHG) to produce hydrogen might represent the most powerful and effective decarbonizing opportunity, if a low-carbon energy source is used to drive it. This is the case of methane (CH4) dry reforming (MDR) where its reaction with carbon dioxide (CO2) produces synthesis gas (syngas, a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen). This study explores the feasibility of using ionizing radiation to induce the MDR reaction, at low temperatures and/or less energy demanding conditions. Additionally, the ionizing radiation is proposed to be supplied by nuclear power plants (NPPs), which are low-carbon reliable energy generation sources. Thus, the radiolysis of CO2, CH4 and their mixtures, under γ-irradiation was evaluated in the absence and presence of nickel catalysts. The radiation-induced MDR reaction and radiation-induced catalytic promotion were proven to take place at temperatures close to ambient though at low conversion, with yields below 1%. Since irradiation and heat can be provided by a nuclear power plant, this radiation-induced reaction establishes a connection between nuclear energy to renewable resources and enables a pathway for a decarbonized cleaner chemical industry, for producing green chemicals.

Energy Efficiency of Induction Motor Drives: State of the Art, Analysis and Recommendations

Despite activities to introduce low-carbon energy sources worldwide, the share of conventional facilities burning organic fuels remains high. One approach to address this problem is to look for solutions to reduce energy consumption. There are various research projects in the area of energy efficiency that lead to diverse results—such as models, methodologies, new data and theories. On the other hand, induction motor drives are becoming a major consumer of electric power because of their wide range of applications. In this paper, after careful selection and systematization of 151 literature sources, an extensive study and criteria analysis of the existing state of affairs in the area of energy efficiency improvement of induction motor drives has been carried out. Five major and 48 minor research areas in this field have been identified. The results show that issues related to the adaptation of scientific results and the conditions for their effective and wide-ranging application in practice have not been discussed and investigated so far. Adaptation should take into account the possibilities of data acquisition, including data from measurements; the competences of energy managers; and the type of information provided to them. Based on the seven conclusions formulated below, summary recommendations are made to direct future research towards the justification of models for increasing the power efficiency of induction drives, adapted for use by energy managers.

Multi-Objective Optimization for Solar-Hydrogen-Battery-Integrated Electric Vehicle Charging Stations with Energy Exchange

The importance of electric vehicle charging stations (EVCS) is increasing as electric vehicles (EV) become more widely used. EVCS with multiple low-carbon energy sources can promote sustainable energy development. This paper presents an optimization methodology for direct energy exchange between multi-geographic dispersed EVCSs in London, UK. The charging stations (CSs) incorporate solar panels, hydrogen, battery energy storage systems, and grids to support their operations. EVs are used to allow the energy exchange of charging stations. The objective function of the solar-hydrogen-battery storage electric vehicle charging station (SHS-EVCS) includes the minimization of both capital and operation and maintenance (O&M) costs, as well as the reduction in greenhouse gas emissions. The system constraints encompass the power output limits of individual components and the need to maintain a power balance between the SHS-EVCSs and the EV charging demand. To evaluate and compare the proposed SHS-EVCSs, two multi-objective optimization algorithms, namely the Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm (NSGA-II) and the Multi-objective Evolutionary Algorithm Based on Decomposition (MOEA/D), are employed. The findings indicate that NSGA-II outperforms MOEA/D in terms of achieving higher-quality solutions. During the optimization process, various factors are considered, including the sizing of solar panels and hydrogen storage tanks, the capacity of electric vehicle chargers, and the volume of energy exchanged between the two stations. The application of the optimized SHS-EVCSs results in substantial cost savings, thereby emphasizing the practical benefits of the proposed approach.

Something Old, Something New: Extending the Life of CPUs in Datacenters

Datacenter operators are increasingly powering their operations with low-carbon energy sources such as wind and solar. As a result, the overall carbon footprint of datacenters increasingly comes from the manufacturing phase of server lifecycles. The most direct way to reduce the environmental impact of datacenters is to amortize the manufacturing emissions of hardware over longer timespans by keeping hardware in production beyond today's relatively short refresh cycles. In this paper we analyze the feasibility of server lifespan extension in datacenters using a series of microbenchmarks. We find that while newer processors outperform older ones, the difference is workload dependent, with some workloads showing promise for older CPUs. We also analyze the potential of incorporating overclocking to further extend server lifespans.

The impact of green credit on energy efficiency from a green innovation perspective: Empirical evidence from China based on a spatial Durbin model

Green credit plays a pivotal role in maintaining a balance between energy demand and the transition to low-carbon energy sources while considering energy conservation, emission reduction and the 'dual carbon' goal strategies. The SE-SBM model and the spatial Durbin model were used in this study to understand how green credit affects energy efficiency. The empirical approach was based on provincial panel data collected in China from 2005 to 2020. The results indicated that green credit significantly enhanced energy efficiency and had a substantial positive spatial spillover effect beyond the immediate region. Therefore, the enforcement of green credit policies could enhance energy efficiency within the region and concurrently encourage an improvement in energy efficiency in adjacent regions. Furthermore, the study unveiled significant regional disparities in the impact of green credit on the improvement of energy efficiency across the eastern, central and western regions. The green credit policies should be customized to align with the unique circumstances of different regions. Green innovation serves as the primary conduit through which green credit enhances energy efficiency. These insights offer a valuable reference for policymakers seeking to enhance energy efficiency via green credit policies.

Analysis of the variability of low-carbon energy sources, nuclear technology and renewable energy sources, in meeting electricity demand

Climate change, caused by an increase in greenhouse gas emissions such as carbon dioxide (CO2), has required the use of renewable energy sources. This study analyzes the structure of Romania’s electricity sector in 2017, specifically the share of renewable energy sources in the sector’s mix. The electricity sector uses both conventional (coal, hydrocarbons, and nuclear) and renewable energy sources (hydro, wind, photovoltaic and biomass). According to the study, the electricity sector in 2017 is still heavily reliant on conventional sources, which account for 64% of total energy consumption, while renewable energy sources account for 36%. Nuclear energy has the most stable operation of all the sources studied, but the power variation is small, with this technology operating at nearly constant parameters. However, nuclear power can experience outages due to the availability of the cooling source or the flow of cooling water in some situations. Nuclear energy had a maximum coverage of 30.66% of electricity consumption in 2017 and an average annual value of 19.53%. Renewable energy (wind energy and photovoltaic energy) has very large fluctuations because it is completely dependent on atmospheric parameters. Wind energy had a maximum of 45.86% and an annual average of 12.28%, while PV had a maximum of 14.56% and an annual average of 2.25%. The most important renewable resource, hydro energy, presented a maximum of 51.96% and an average annual value of 24.01%.

Impacts of Thermal Drainage on Bacterial Diversity and Community Construction in Tianwan Nuclear Power Plant.

As one of the low-carbon and high-efficient energy sources, nuclear power is developing vigorously to alleviate the crisis of global climate warming and realize carbon neutrality goals. Meanwhile, the ecological effect of thermal drainage in the nuclear power plant is significantly remarkable, which environmental assessment system has not yet referred to microorganisms. The rapid response of microbial diversity and community structure to environmental changes is crucial for ecosystem stability. This study investigated the bacterial diversity, community construction, and the co-occurrence patterns by 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing among gradient warming regions in Tianwan Nuclear Power Plant. The alpha diversity of the high warming region was the lowest in summer, which was dominated by Proteobacteria, whereas the highest bacterial diversity presented in high warming regions in winter, which harbored higher proportions of Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes, and Firmicutes. The spatial distribution of bacterial communities showed clear separation especially in summer. Strong correlations were between community compositions and environmental factors, such as salinity, DO, TN, and temperature in summer. Furthermore, remarkable seasonality in bacterial co-occurrence patterns was discovered: the robustness of the bacterial co-occurrence network was promoted in winter, while the complexity and robustness were decreased in summer due to the warming of thermal drainage. These findings reveal the potential factors underpinning the influence of thermal drainage on bacterial community structure, which make it possible to predict the ecological effect of the nuclear power plants by exploring how the microbial assembly is likely to respond to the temperature and other environmental changes.

Potential impacts of rapidly changing european use of fossil fuels on global warming

The balance of primary energy sources for Europe has been changing rapidly over recent decades, shifting towards more renewables and using fossil fuels with lower carbon emissions. However, the latter is being impacted by the Russia-Ukraine conflict. Here, we determine the potential bounds of how this may affect global warming, based on whether the European use of Russian gas and oil is replaced with either less efficient burning of coal (with and without the gas and oil then used in new markets elsewhere) or with renewables. We perform calculations as perturbations from a baseline carbon dioxide (CO2) trajectory associated with ‘middle range’ and ‘low’ Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSP), SSP2-45 and SSP1-26. We calculate the CO2 perturbations as a simulated step change in emissions for the year 2023, which then decays linearly to zero by 2043. The emission profiles drive the FaIR simple climate model. FaIR links greenhouse gas emissions to global warming levels and includes a representation of warming uncertainty based on projections made using more complex Earth system models. We find that the direct impact of the conflict on the global mean temperature is likely to be relatively small, amounting to the worst case of nearly one-hundredth of a degree. This warming is equivalent to approximately an extra half year of current global CO2 emissions. However, we suggest that it is important to consider the implications of the precedents set by the European response to the reduced availability of Russian gas and oil. Such action may reveal the potential for faster uptake of low-carbon energy sources or the converse of backtracking on current Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs).

Efficiency analysis of nuclear power plants: A comprehensive review

Nuclear power plants play a significant role in global electricity generation, offering a reliable and low-carbon energy source. Maximizing the efficiency of nuclear power plants is crucial for optimizing energy output and reducing operational costs while ensuring safety and environmental sustainability. This paper presents a comprehensive review of the efficiency analysis conducted on nuclear power plants, covering various aspects such as thermal efficiency, conversion efficiency, fuel utilization, and overall plant performance. The review synthesizes the existing literature, discusses key factors influencing efficiency, and highlights potential areas for future research and improvements. It is revealed from the present review that the efficiency of the Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) of the Nuclear Power Plant is 32% and which can be increased to 33% by using advanced BWR. Also, the efficiency of the Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) of the Nuclear Power Plant is 33% and which can be increased to 36.5% by using the PWR with Gas Burner and Reheating. On the other hand, the efficiency of the Small Modular Reactor (SMR) of the Nuclear Power Plant is 33.4% and which can be increased to 35.5%, 37.4% and 45% by using SMR with Gas Burner, SMR with Reheating and SMR with CCGT, respectively. Therefore, it is predicted that the Small Modular Reactor (SMR) is the most economic Nuclear Power Plant as it has higher thermal efficiency when it is incorporated with Combined Cycle Gas Turbine (CCGT).

Technology Development for Hydrogen Production Using Nuclear Energy

Nuclear energy is a low-carbon energy source which can provide both electricity and high-temperature heat. Nuclear-based hydrogen production offers a unique opportunity to mitigate carbon emissions. Canadian Nuclear Laboratories (CNL) has been actively developing technologies for nuclear hydrogen production. This poster will highlight CNL’s capability and achievements on the Cu-Cl thermochemical process (CNL trademarked as HCuTECTM) and Solid oxide electrolysis (SOE).HCuTECTM has four main steps in the process: Electrolysis, Separation, Hydrolysis and Thermolysis. The maximum temperature of the HCuTECTM process is 530 oC, which is lower than other thermochemical processes and makes its coupling with some small modular reactors and the supercritical water nuclear reactor ideal since these reactors can supply heat above 600 oC. CNL has extensively studied these individual steps and demonstrated an integrated laboratory system (shown in Figure 1) with a hydrogen production capacity of 100 g/d. CNL is interested in scaling up the process with industrial partners.SOE is also being researched and advanced for hydrogen and clean fuel production at CNL. Current effort is focused on the materials development for oxygen conducting cells. Several CNL cells were made with in-house materials and tested on single cell stations. Preliminary results of CNL cells showed very promising performance for hydrogen production. In the meantime, CNL is assessing the economic benefit of different options to integrate SOE with high-temperature nuclear reactors for both hydrogen and clean fuel production. Figure 1

Life-Cycle and Applicational Analysis of Hydrogen Production and Powered Inland Marine Vessels

Green energy is at the forefront of current policy, research, and engineering, but some of the potential fuels require either a lot of deeper research, or a lot of infrastructure before they can be implemented. In the case of hydrogen both are true. This report aims to analyse the potential of hydrogen as a future fuel source by performing a life-cycle assessment. Through this the well-to-tank phase of fuel production, and the usage phase of the system have been analysed. Models have also been created for traditional fuel systems to best compare results. The results show that hydrogen has great potential to convert marine transport to operating off green fuels when powered through low-carbon energy sources, which could reduce a huge percentage of the international community’s greenhouse gas emissions. Hydrogen produced through wind powered alkaline electrolysis produced emission data 5.25 g of CO2 equivalent per MJ, compared to the 210 g per MJ produced by a medium efficiency diesel equivalent system, a result 40 times larger. However, with current infrastructure in most countries not utilising a great amount of green energy production, the effects of hydrogen usage could be more dangerous than current fuel sources, owing to the incredible energy requirements of hydrogen production, with even grid (UK) powered electrolysis producing an emission level of 284 g per MJ, which is an increase against standard diesel systems. From this the research concludes that without global infrastructure change, hydrogen will remain as a potential fuel rather than a common one.

Soil organic matter and nutrient availability affect the applicability of low-carbon energy source in Dehalococcoides-augmented soil

Dehalococcoides is a functional microorganism that completely dechlorinates trichloroethene (TCE). Augmentation with pure Dehalococcoides is important for reducing environmental disturbances that accompany bioaugmentation. However, the applicability of Dehalococcoides-bioaugmentation to contaminated soils is unclear. In this study, seven low-carbon energy sources (methanol, formate, acetate, ethanol, lactate, citrate, and benzoate) were used as electron donors for Dehalococcides to evaluate its applicability in remediating TCE-contaminated soils. Soil microcosms supplemented with ethanol, formate, or lactate showed relatively high dechlorination activity within 111–180 days. The functional gene profiles predicted by PICRUSt2 from 16 S rRNA gene sequences were similar in the proportions of dehydrogenases, which initiate electron donor oxidation, in all soils and did not seem to reflect Dehalococcoides-bioaugmentation applicability. Soils with higher organic matter content (>3.2%; dry weight base) and protein concentration (>1.6 µg/mL) supported complete dechlorination. These results suggest that organic matter and nutrient availability mainly affect successful TCE dechlorination in Dehalococcoides-augmented soils. The study offers significant experimental support for comprehending the suitability of low-carbon energy sources in successful bioaugmentation, aiming to mitigate environmental disturbances associated with the process.

Determinants of public preferences on low-carbon energy sources: Evidence from the United Kingdom

We empirically derive the determinants of British public preferences for different low-carbon energy sources using machine learning algorithm-based variable selection methods (ridge, lasso, and elastic net regression models). We seek to understand the drivers of support for solar, wind, biomass, and nuclear energy, which are the largest low-carbon energy sources and together account for the majority of UK power generation. Explanatory variables examined include those related to demographics, knowledge, perceptions of climate change, and government policy. We carry out a comparative study by synthesising the results of our independent analyses for each energy source and find that the preferred energy sources vary with respondents’ views on anticipated climate change impacts. Those who believe that potential effects of climate change will be catastrophic tend to prefer renewable energy sources whereas those less concerned about climate change tend to prefer nuclear power. The public also prefers energy sources about which they are more familiar or knowledgeable. Energy transition policies should be adjusted to better consider the factors that drive public acceptance of low-carbon energy sources, including exploring ways to secure policy support that considers energy source-specific characteristics and expanding public awareness of climate change and individual technologies, particularly among certain demographics.

Prediction model and demonstration of regional agricultural carbon emissions based on Isomap–ACO–ET: a case study of Guangdong Province, China

Scientific analysis of regional agricultural carbon emission prediction models and empirical studies are of great practical significance to the realization of low-carbon agriculture, which can help revitalize and build up ecological and beautiful countryside in China. This paper takes agriculture in Guangdong Province, China, as the research object, and uses the extended STIPAT model to construct an indicator system for the factors influencing agricultural carbon emissions in Guangdong. Based on this system, a combined Isomap–ACO–ET prediction model combing the isometric mapping algorithm (Isomap), ant colony algorithm (ACO) and extreme random tree algorithm (ET) was used to predict agriculture carbon emissions in Guangdong Province under five scenarios. Effective predictions can be made for agricultural carbon emissions in Guangdong Province, which are expected to fluctuate between 11,142,200 tons and 11,386,000 tons in 2030. And compared with other machine learning and neural network models, the Isomap–ACO–ET model has a better prediction performance with an MSE of 0.00018 and an accuracy of 98.7%. To develop low-carbon agriculture in Guangdong Province, we should improve farming methods, reduce the intensity of agrochemical application, strengthen the development and promotion of agricultural energy-saving and emission reduction technologies and low-carbon energy sources, reduce the intensity of carbon emissions from agricultural energy consumption, optimize the agricultural planting structure, and develop green agricultural products and agro-ecological tourism according to local conditions. This will promote the development of agriculture in Guangdong Province in a green and sustainable direction.

Global supply sustainability assessment of critical metals for clean energy technology

The enduring challenges posed by the supply sustainability of critical metals have long served as a barrier to the low carbon energy transition and the regulation of global climate issues. This study aims to determine whether the supply of essential minerals can keep pace with the global demand associated with the shift towards low-carbon energy sources. In this study, critical metal minerals required by clean energy technology are taken as the research object, the supply and demand background of critical minerals are sorted and compared. By utilizing the genetic algorithm support vector regression (GA-SVR) predictive model, the research scrutinized the supply trends and developed twelve different supply and demand schemes under various development scenarios. These facilitated the assessment of the future supply sustainability of critical metals for clean energy technology. Results demonstrate that under a basic scenario, the global supply of lithium, cobalt, and nickel is projected to reach 200,000 tons, 300,000 tons, and 4 million tons, respectively, by 2030. Under a high supply scenario, these figures rise to 350,000 tons, 500,000 tons, and 5 million tons. From a global supply trend perspective, lithium, cobalt, and nickel resources are projected to grow by 2–4, 1–3, and 1.6–2 times, respectively. Examining supply and demand, the highest risk of supply shortages lies with lithium resources, followed by cobalt. Meanwhile, nickel faces no imminent risk of supply shortage. By 2030, if the compound annual growth rate of global demand for lithium and cobalt hits 15%, supply sustainability will reach a critical juncture, leading to a supply deficit. Lithium resources may encounter this critical demand growth rate even earlier. Although the supply risks for cobalt and nickel currently appear minimal, questions around the long-term availability and sustainability of these resources persist. Ensuring the sustainable supply of these resources necessitates a well-structured and efficient system for recycling secondary resources, technological advancements in the mining industry, and improvements in material strength.