Low Carbon Energy Infrastructure Research Articles

Assessing the decarbonization of electricity generation in major emitting countries by 2030 and 2050: Transition to a high share renewable energy mix

The urgent need to mitigate the severe environmental impacts of climate change necessitates a transition to a low-carbon energy infrastructure, crucial for decarbonization and achieving global sustainability goals. This study investigates the decarbonization trajectories of five major economies and significant carbon emitters: the United States of America (USA), China, Japan, Germany, and India. We focus on evaluating two decarbonization scenarios for power generation. Scenario 1 explores the use of a generic storage system for reducing critical excess electricity production (CEEP), maintaining the same thermal power plant capacity as in the reference year 2021. In contrast, Scenario 2 models thermal power plants to meet the exact electricity demand without introducing a new electricity storage system. The primary aim is to assess the feasibility and implications of achieving a 100% share of renewable and nuclear energy by 2030 and 2050 in these countries. EnergyPLAN software was utilized to model and simulate the electricity systems of these countries. The two scenarios represent different degrees of renewable energy integration, demonstrating possible transitional pathways towards an environmentally friendly electricity generation system. The study provides a comparative analysis of the outcomes for each country, focusing on carbon emissions reduction and the impact on annual total costs in 2030 and 2050. Results show that by 2030, China could reduce its emissions by 88.5% and 85.14% in Scenarios 1 and 2, relative to 2021 levels. From the two scenarios considered in all the countries, India records the highest percentage reduction while Germany has the least percentage emission in reference to 2021, with a potential decrease of 90.63% and 52.42% respectively. By 2050, carbon emissions in the USA will be reduced by 83% and 79.8% using Scenario 1 and Scenario 2 decarbonization pathways. This research significantly contributes to understanding the decarbonization potential of global electricity generation. It provides vital data for policymakers, energy planners, and stakeholders involved in developing sustainable energy policies.

Implementation of the power generation program by the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB) to improve the economy in Bangladesh

This article examines the effectiveness of programs carried out by the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB) in encouraging economic investment and infrastructure connectivity in Asia. Specifically, the author will analyze AIIB assistance in Bangladesh in the electrical energy sector. AIIB is a multinational development bank initiated by China to encourage infrastructure in Asia. In terms of long-term funding for infrastructure sub-projects such as sub-projects in the areas of power production, ICT, cross-regional transportation, etc., AIIB has emerged as one of the most important development partners for Bangladesh. This paper aims to answer how effective the implementation of the electricity sector program by AIIB is in improving the economy in Bangladesh. To examine this topic, the author refers to Development theory and the concept of Global Governance. The results of the author's analysis show that most of the assistance provided by AIIB in Bangladesh focuses on the electrical energy sector, this is a response to the electricity crisis which is hampering the Bangladesh economy. The results of implementing the program are considered quite effective because it succeeded in distributing electricity evenly in villages and encouraging development renewable and low-carbon electrical energy infrastructure. However, this program can also be considered less effective because it has not been able to encourage Bangladesh to maximize its own natural resources to guarantee its electricity supply due to the low share of the renewable energy market in Bangladesh's electricity.

Specific Features of Operation of Distributed Generation Facilities Based on Gas Reciprocating Units in Internal Power Systems of Industrial Entities

The creation of a decentralized low-carbon energy infrastructure is the main trend in the development of the electric power industry in many countries. Distributed generation facilities (DGs) based on gas reciprocating units (GRUs) are often built by industrial entities for the efficient utilization of secondary energy resources in order to minimize the environmental impact. Modern GRUs have some advantages, but they have design features that should be factored in when connecting them to the internal power systems of industrial entities. Incorrect consideration of possible operating conditions of GRU in their design can lead to their damage, excessive shutdowns, and disruptions in power supply to essential power consumers with significant damage and losses from undersupply of their products. Excessive shutdowns of GRUs are often caused by a non-selective choice of settings for relay protection devices or by load surges that exceed the allowable ones. With high availability factors, GRUs are disconnected five to eight times more often compared to large gas turbine and steam turbine power units. The large total power consumed by electric motors, as part of the load of an industrial entity, determines the nature and parameters of electromechanical transient processes during emergency disturbances. The presented analysis of issues facing real DG facilities relies on the acts of investigation into the causes of accidents. Calculations have shown that the action of the “Load Agreement Module” in the GRU excitation controller can provoke the occurrence of a voltage avalanche in the internal power system with a complete shutdown of the load. The paper presents recommendations on the choice of control algorithms and voltage settings for the GRU excitation controller. Technical solutions are given to prevent damage and excessive shutdowns of GRU in various operating conditions of the system, and to help ensure a reliable power supply to power consumers. The change in approaches to the design of DG facilities is substantiated in the light of their significant differences from other electric power facilities.

Does green finance counteract the climate change mitigation: Asymmetric effect of renewable energy investment and R&D

Economies must decarbonize their energy sectors to meet their climate-policy objectives. This requires high investment in low-carbon energy infrastructure; however, there is a shortage of financial resources. In this study, based on data from 2008 to 2018 G-20 economies, we estimated the impact of green finance and digital finance on environmental protection using a quantile regression model. The results show that CO2 emissions in the environment are reduced by green finance, renewable energy investment, and technological innovation, as shown in the panel quantile regression findings, whereas CO2 emissions are increased by factors such as economic growth, energy consumption, trade, and foreign direct investment. This study proposes different ways for policymakers to increase the impact of green finance, promote digital finance, and create a carbon-trading market for sustainable development.

Assessing elements of energy justice in Colombia: A case study on transmission infrastructure in La Guajira

The United Nations declaration of a climate urgency in 2020 has intensified the need for change in energy systems across the world. This has resulted in political attention increasingly shifting to the development of low-carbon energy infrastructure. In the case of Colombia, the energy transition has brought a focus on the La Guajira region for its potential wind energy resources and the associated need for new transmission infrastructure. La Guajira is characterised by an extractive-based economy, poor socioeconomic performance and a large indigenous population. This research uses the energy justice framework to examine the justice dynamics that affect the acceptance of a proposed transmission line project. With a special focus on procedural, distributive and recognition justice, the findings that are also based on semi-structured interviews reveal interrelated equity concerns. They further highlight that recognition justice can be an underpinning force of a just transition to a low-carbon economy. The research results follow previous research but also significantly demonstrates that the roles of community advisors and experts are influential. They can foster or block energy justice. Further, this study provides evidence that the ongoing energy transition has a major hurdle of procedural justice through social acceptance. This has occurred mainly due to the legacy effects of the operations of conventional energy sources in the region. This advances the case that to achieve a just transition to a low-carbon economy, unjust legacy policies and actions of the fossil fuel industry have to be addressed.

Geoscience Solutions for Sustainable Offshore Wind Development

Low carbon energy infrastructure, such as wind and solar farms, are crucial for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and limiting global temperature rise to 1.5°C. During 2020, 5.2 GW of offshore wind capacity went into operation worldwide, taking the total operational capacity of global offshore wind to 32.5 GW from 162 offshore windfarms, and over 200 GW of new capacity is planned by 2030. To meet net-zero targets, growth of offshore wind generation is expected, which raises new challenges, including integration of offshore wind into the natural environment and the wider energy system, throughout the wind farm lifecycle. This review examines the role of geosciences in addressing these challenges; technical sustainability challenges and opportunities are reviewed, filtered according to global governance priorities, and assessed according to the role that geoscience can play in providing solutions. We find that geoscience solutions play key roles in sustainable offshore wind energy development through two broad themes: 1) windfarm and infrastructure site conditions, and 2) infrastructure for transmission, conversion and energy storage. To conclude, we recommend priorities and approaches that will support geoscience contributions to offshore wind, and ultimately enable sustainable offshore wind development. Recommendations include industry collaboration and systems for effective data sharing and archiving, as well as further research, education and skills.

Catalyst-coated proton exchange membrane for hydrogen production with high pressure water electrolysis

Green hydrogen is currently enjoying a worldwide momentum due to its potential in supporting the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. It is one of key technologies toward the establishment of a global low-carbon energy infrastructure. As a viable solution to achieve green hydrogen from renewable sources such as wind and solar powers, the process of proton exchange membrane (PEM) water electrolysis enables scalable stacked devices and systems for high pressure hydrogen production. By developing a catalyst-coated proton exchange membrane, we constructed membrane electrode assemblies (MEAs) and assembled them into a five-cell stack device to optimize the materials and components. After device characterization and optimization, a 20 kW PEM water electrolysis system was built, which, under high pressure operating conditions, exhibited favorable hydrogen production performance with 82.9% energy efficiency at the current density of 1000 mA/cm2 and reaction temperature of 70 °C. The resulting hydrogen production rate of the system with catalyst-coated membranes reached 3.09 N m3/h, while the power consumption for hydrogen production was 4.39 kWh/N m3. The results indicate the feasibility of PEM water electrolysis technology for green hydrogen production, for which we envision development into commercial applications in the near future.

Modelling the macroeconomics of a ‘closing the green finance gap’ scenario for an energy transition

Reaching the UK net-zero emissions target translates into substantial investment requirements into low-carbon energy infrastructure. However, investors are currently not investing sufficiently in renewable energy capacity, leading to the so-called green finance gap. Current energy-economy models generally do not reveal the macroeconomic implications of policies aimed at scaling-up green finance for energy transitions. In the light of this background, we extend the energy-economy Green Investment Barrier Model with the insights from a systematic literature review to investigate the macroeconomic implications of a policy scenario designed to close the green finance gap in combination with and without a scenario to decarbonise the power sector. We also compare the achieved results with studies focusing on a similar research question. We find that the closing the green finance gap policy scenario alongside a low-carbon power scenario leads to the co-benefits of lower power system costs and unemployment, and increases in GDP.

Testing Photovoltaic Power Plants for Participation in General Primary Frequency Control under Various Topology and Operating Conditions

The energy transition is accompanied by developing a digital decentralized low-carbon energy infrastructure with renewable-based generating plants as its main elements. In 2020, 15 photovoltaic power plants (PVPs) with an installed capacity of 364 MW were commissioned in Russia, which is 21.08% of the total installed PVP capacity of Russia. The findings of an analysis of Russia’s current regulatory and technical documents (RTD) concerning the frequency and active power flow control are presented. They indicate that all PVPs must participate in the general primary frequency control (GPFC). This requirement is due to large frequency deviations of transient processes resulting from an emergency active power shortage, which can shut down frequency-maintaining generating plants by relay or process protection devices and industrial consumers with significant damage to them. The requirements suggest full-scale tests of PVP to confirm their readiness for participation in GPFC. The program and results of checking the algorithm of change in the PVP active power, depending on frequency, are demonstrated with an example of one PVP. The full-scale tests confirmed the compliance of the certified PVP with this requirement. The plans for involving PVPs in the power flow control under various topology and operation conditions are considered.

A green expansion: China's role in the global deployment and transfer of solar photovoltaic technology

Chinese investment and technology will play an important role in meeting growing global demand for new low carbon energy infrastructure, and Chinese companies are increasingly looking outward for market development opportunities. This outward expansion is directly connected to larger trends within China to promote overseas investments, primarily through the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). Using an original dataset comprised of trade data and firm level data from primary source material and expert interviews, we examine the means by which Chinese companies are deploying solar energy technology abroad, and assess the potential of these activities to facilitate technology transfer to China's trading partners. We find that Chinese solar photovoltaic (PV) firms are primarily engaging in downstream activities overseas, along with some manufacturing activities, and minimal upstream activities. We also find that there are opportunities for technology transfer within all segments of the solar value chain characterizing overseas activities. Therefore, even as the majority of China's solar activities abroad are in the downstream segments of solar product sales and project development, there are still opportunities for South-South transfer of solar photovoltaic technology within these activities. Chinese companies are reaching a broad consumer base in emerging and developed markets through the export of solar panels, manufacturing bases, and services, causing a shift in the traditional models of technology transfer flows. As China will continue play a large role in deploying solar technology abroad in the coming years, its partners must continue to engage with China to build a deeper and stronger capacity for sustainable development.

Octopus’s garden under the blade: Boosting biodiversity increases willingness to pay for offshore wind in the United States

Low carbon energy infrastructure has been controversial for economic, social and environmental reasons: relatively high capital costs compared to fossil fuels; dissatisfaction with who owns the infrastructure; visual impacts; and habitat harm. Our research takes an initial step to assess the relative salience of these challenges with a choice experiment targeting residents of coastal New England – a US region where utility-scale offshore wind farms are under consideration. The choice experiment asks how much are residents willing to pay above their current utility rates for offshore wind farms that increase marine species abundance and diversity with artificial reefs? We assess residents' willingness to pay (WTP) for different wind farm ownership models, and aesthetic impacts based on variation in distance from shore. Results of this exploratory study show strong preferences for wind farms that provide high quality artificial reef habitat, particularly among those who score high on the New Ecological Paradigm (NEP), a measure of environmental orientation. Results indicate WTP ranging from $17/month for people who score low on NEP to $31/month for people who score high on NEP for wind farms that generate a 60% increase in reef species diversity and abundance. We found significant preferences for cooperative, state or municipal ownership rather than private ownership. People are willing to pay ~$9/month for wind farms ≥10 miles from shore, rather than a wind farm 1 mile from shore. Our study suggests integrating biodiversity benefits into the design of renewable energy infrastructure could increase public support for such developments.

A novel optimal configuration model for a zero-carbon multi-energy system (ZC-MES) integrated with financial constraints

Abstract The concept of Multi-Energy System (MES) has been identified as a succinct approach in minimizing the economic implications, reducing environmental hazards, and increasing the efficiency of an integrated energy infrastructure holistically. Nevertheless, whilst a great number of resources have been invested in achieving low carbon energy communities and energy infrastructure, limited research has been conducted towards the realization of zero-carbon (ZC) MES. In line with this, this paper developed a novel mathematical model for the optimal configuration of ZC-MES integrated with financial constraints. To achieve this aim, a novel mean–max approach is proposed in this study for the selection of the representative hourly data from the pool of available datasets. Next, mixed-integer linear programming (MILP) is formulated to describe the whole system, with the inclusion of new replacement cost formulation and financial constraints. The proposed approach is then verified using a developed residential district area in Hong Kong that was modeled using TRNSYS software as a case study under different scenarios. The simulation results show that the optimal investment cost obtained by the conventional approach can be further reduced by 2.90% through rational equipment configuration without violating the applicable constraints, while a financing rate of 5% and 10% on the additional funds under breakable constraint are of economic benefits to the investors. Hereupon, this paper provides a useful reference resource for energy planners, decision-makers, and academic researchers, on the feasibility of zero-emission in the energy sector and other related fields.

Measuring Energy Performance for Regional Sustainable Development in China: A New Framework based on a Dynamic Two-Stage SBM Approach

Sustainable development has always been an important issue for all policy makers, even more so now, as global warming has seriously threatened the whole world. To understand the efficacy of regional sustainable policies, we proposed a dynamic, two-stage, slacks-based measure (SBM) model with carry-over and intermediate variables, highlighting the importance of an electricity portfolio, to measure overall energy performance for the purpose of regional sustainable development. In this unified linear programming framework with intertemporal evaluation, we estimated the effects of a clean electricity supply by the abatement of CO2 emissions and the gain of economic growth. The results can be used as a reference for decision makers to shape regional sustainable development policies. Using data of 30 provincial administration regions in China for the period of 2012–2017, we postulate that the lower energy performance of the Chinese regional economic system for sustainable development may be attributed to a lower electricity portfolio performance. We then postulate that investment in low-carbon energy infrastructure can combat CO2 emissions, and is also a major driving force in the regional economic growth.

Can MENA extractive industries support the global energy transition? Current opportunities and future directions

Endowed with half of the world's known oil and gas reserves, as well as a significant deposit of mineral resources, the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region has perennially accounted for a significant portion of global extractives resource production and supply, catalysing significant economic activity in several low to middle income MENA societies. However, the last decade has seen a growing transition away from carbon intensive fossil fuels across the world. Several studies have focused on how the global energy transition could pose significant threats to sustained economic prosperity and development in MENA extractive industries and society. In contrast, this article examines how extractive industries in the MENA region can play crucial roles in the global energy transition. By leveraging their comparative advantages in environmentally preferable products, such as natural gas; investing in cleaner production methods; promoting investments in low carbon energy infrastructure projects; and ensuring greater institutional coordination in the implementation of low carbon and renewable energy policies, MENA countries can play significant roles in advancing global energy transition and security.

Sustainable Minerals and Metals for a Low-Carbon Future

Climate change mitigation will create new natural resource and supply chain opportunities and dilemmas, because substantial amounts of raw materials will be required to build new low-carbon energy devices and infrastructure. However, despite attempts at improved governance and better corporate management, procurement of many mineral and metal resources occurs in areas generally acknowledged for mismanagement, remains environmentally capricious, and, in some cases, is a source of conflict at the sites of resource extraction. These extractive and smelting industries have thus left a legacy in many parts of the world of environmental degradation, adverse impacts to public health, marginalized communities and workers, and biodiversity damage. We identify key sustainability challenges with practices used in industries that will supply the metals and minerals—including cobalt, copper, lithium, cadmium, and rare earth elements (REEs)—needed for technologies such as solar photovoltaics, batteries, electric vehicle (EV) motors, wind turbines, fuel cells, and nuclear reactors. We then propose four holistic recommendations to make mining and metal processing more sustainable and just and to make the mining and extractive industries more efficient and resilient.

Closing the green finance gap – A systems perspective

Meeting its climate policy objectives requires the UK to rapidly decarbonise its energy sector. This demands high levels of investments into low carbon energy infrastructure, which are currently not undertaken at required scale, leading to a green finance gap. We explore (1) key investment barriers, (2) a theoretical framework for investigation and (3) possible solutions, drawing on a review of academic literature and policy reports, and interviews conducted with financial investors and experts. Our study confirms that policy uncertainty and short-termism in the financial system are the two main investment barriers. Our results show that identified barriers form a complex system characterised by path-dependency, lock-in and non-linearity. We recommend the adoption of systems theory as an analytical framework to inform the related policy debate and propose the expansion or development of sustainable investment vehicles as a useful near-term solution while preparing a long-term policy intervention based on a systems perspective.

Sustainable Performance of Low-Carbon Energy Infrastructure Investment on Regional Development: Evidence from China

In the 13th Five-Year Plan, the Chinese government declared that one of the sustainable policy priorities is improving the energy supply composition in order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. In accordance with the Plan, the Guangdong government subsequently planned to invest in low-carbon energy infrastructure from 2016 to 2020. Using data from Guangdong province and other regions in China for 2007–2016, we propose a two-stage network data envelopment analysis (Network DEA) model to examine the sustainable performance of the Chinese regional/provincial economic system. We postulated that the less sustainable performance of Chinese regional economic systems may be attributed to lower energy productivity performance. However, we found that increased governmental and industrial spending on electricity mix improvement by building new low-carbon power plants created momentum in Guangdong’s economic growth, which experienced an annual rise of roughly 1.16%. Finally, the results from the two-stage Network DEA model showed that Guangdong fared better than other provinces with respect to sustainable performance. Investment in low-carbon energy infrastructure is not only a measure to combat CO2 emission, but could act as the driving force of regional economic systems.

Mining at 2,500 Fathoms under the Sea: Thoughts on an Emerging Regulatory Framework

An industry to recover mineral resources on the abyssal plains is emerging. Albeit at an explorative stage in areas beyond national jurisdiction, the commercial mining of seafloor non-living resources containing strategic metals is a realistic proposition, spurred by the demand for renewable, low-carbon energy infrastructure. The achievement of worldwide techno-economic growth must, under the principle of sustainable development, be coupled with the protection of the marine environment and its natural resources. Overall, this presents not only challenges to the development of mining technologies, but also tests the resilience of international standards governing the regulation of mining activities at great depths, including the development of the highest standards of environmental protection ab inito. This paper explores the approach being taken by the International Seabed Authority in advancing the legal regime for the regulation of mining activities in the Area, and in particular the tools and mechanisms targeted toward the protection of the marine environment.

Scaling up local energy infrastructure; An agent-based model of the emergence of district heating networks

The potential contribution of local energy infrastructure – such as heat networks – to the transition to a low carbon economy is increasingly recognised in international, national and municipal policy. Creating the policy environment to foster the scaling up of local energy infrastructure is, however, still challenging; despite national policy action and local authority interest the growth of heat networks in UK cities remains slow. Techno-economic energy system models commonly used to inform policy are not designed to address institutional and governance barriers. We present an agent-based model of heat network development in UK cities in which policy interventions aimed at the institutional and governance barriers faced by diverse actors can be explored. Three types of project instigators are included – municipal, commercial and community – which have distinct decision heuristics and capabilities and follow a multi-stage development process. Scenarios of policy interventions developed in a companion modelling approach indicate that the effect of interventions differs between actors depending on their capabilities. Successful interventions account for the specific motivations and capabilities of different actors, provide a portfolio of support along the development process and recognise the important strategic role of local authorities in supporting low carbon energy infrastructure.

A socio-technical perspective on low carbon investment challenges – Insights for UK energy policy

The UK is moving into a new phase of energy governance which is characterised by significant demand for new investment to meet long term climate policy objectives and to address shorter term energy security challenges. This paper examines how contributions from the socio-technical systems approach can be operationalised to address the policy and societal challenge of large scale investments in low carbon energy infrastructure. Research on socio-technical transitions explores the dynamics of long term structural change in capital intensive systems such as energy, housing and water supply, seeking to redirect them towards more sustainable long term trajectories. Focusing on the UK electricity generation sector, the paper expands on three key low carbon investment challenges where socio-technical research can provide useful insights – (1) understanding long term uncertainty and investment risks; (2) avoiding technological lock-in; and (3) accelerating the diffusion of low carbon finance ‘niches’.