Local Public Transport Research Articles

Towards full electrification of local public transport: A tool to guide strategies for implementing the electric charging network

This paper describes a methodology and a Decision Support Tool (DST) for the assessment of the impacts of future scenarios of public electric mobility on the electric Distribution Network (DN) of a city, aimed to support the implementation strategies of the electric charging network for the Local Public Transport (LPT).The objective of the proposed tool is supporting the decision makers in estimating the effect of the future development of electromobility on the urban electric grid considering the evolution of both electric buses and their charging infrastructure.Some scenarios for the development of electric charging infrastructure for LPT were identified together with the local public transport operator and the energy provider. The results, which are of interest to both the local Public Transport Operator (PTO) and the local Distribution System Operator (DSO), have been quantified for the city of Turin (Italy), but the methodology can be adopted in any urban context: DSOs and PTOs of each city can use the proposed tool as a support to define their public transport electrification strategies.Some results from the case study examined in this paper (Turin, Italy) show that the energy demand related to the electrification of LPT on a typical weekday is about 45 MWh in 2030 (corresponding to 40 % e-bus), and about 90 MWh when the entire bus fleet is electric. It is also shown how more distributed recharging during the day (with intermediate recharging at the terminus) can dampen the energy/power peaks required at the depot compared to overnight recharging alone: a reduction of up to 27 % of energy demand at the depot is observed due to opportunity charging.

Predicting costs of local public bus transport services through machine learning methods

The present study developed several machine learning-based cost models to predict an efficient total economic cost per vehicle revenue-mile of urban public bus transport. The models were trained on a built-in dataset from 269 transit agencies providing urban services in the United States from 2015 to 2019. A feature selection strategy was implemented, finding that, for each proposed model, a subset of features determined a large impact on unit cost. These “core” features included commercial speed, average salary expenses per employee, vehicle productivity, and fleet ownership cost per vehicle. Machine learning techniques outperformed the linear regression method in terms of predictive power and robustness (understood as the dispersion of predictive power measures over the training sets). Based on SHAP values, the sensitivity analyses showed that the proposed models could be used to predict the impact of changes in some critical features on corresponding unit costs. The results may be useful for: (i) introducing regulatory constraints to the allocation of national public resources to local public bus transport services, aimed at minimizing the resources needed to provide a given level of service; (ii) defining the maximum economic compensation required by firms involved in competitive tendering for the allotment of service concessions, or firms with monopoly rights (by political choice and/or local public ownership); and (iii) improving service contract management and design by identifying key cost drivers of transit services.

Smarter but more unequal transport? How socioeconomic and digital inequalities hinder adoption of mobility apps in the Global South

All over the world, cities are becoming “smarter.” The improved use of data generated by the transport system (e.g. smart cards data), combined with GPS trackers and citizens’ mobile data enabled the development of a new generation of smarter mobile apps (e.g., Waze) and several local real-time public transport services and trip planners. These technologies have the potential to reduce transport inequalities via two mechanisms. First, governments can develop more efficient and evidence-based public transport plans. Second, citizens have access to better, real-time information about public transport for trip planning and, thus, can make better—i.e., more efficient or cheaper—decisions regarding their everyday mobility. To assess whether citizens’ appropriation of smart mobility—as with their appropriation of any other digital service—depends strongly on having a certain set of socioeconomic and digital attributes, we analyzed both a mobility survey and a digital inequalities survey based on representative samples of adult Uruguayans living in the capital Montevideo. We find that while the use of mobility apps increased in the second half of the 2010s, the adoption of these tools was stratified by traditional digital inequalities, such as type of internet access and digital literacy, and by variables that predict inequalities in both digital and transport fields, such as age, gender and education. As a result, mobility continues to be stratified in favor of those who are more knowledgeable (i.e., tech-savvy) and have greater access to digital technology. Thus, “smart mobility” has failed to ameliorate—and may even exacerbate—transport inequality. Policy implications of these findings are discussed.

A quantified planning method of local public transport services for expanding residents’ activity opportunities

The purpose of public transport is to expand activity opportunities of residents. Many public transport planning methods focus on the needs of residents. However, residents can adapt to the environment and form limited needs in areas with low public transport service levels, such as rural areas. Therefore, it is important to focus on activity opportunities (various states of people (being) and actions (being able)) rather than needs. The authors constructed a method for local public transport planning that focuses on activity opportunities; however, the variables and solutions of the model were abstract and thus did not reach the stage of practical application. Therefore, this study aimed to put into practical use a supporting method for local public transport planning. This method consists of a “measurement model for activity opportunity,” in which a given bus service and the ability to use it are variables, and an “evaluation model for planning alternatives” that incorporates a social relationship function and disparity principle. Through a case analysis in a rural area to which this method was applied, its usefulness was verified, and it was confirmed that it can contribute to public transport planning to increase activity opportunities.

What means of transport did Italians choose during the pandemic? A literature review

The ongoing health emergency is reshaping the environmental, social and economic context. It is therefore necessary to define a new overall mobility ecosystem. The freeze and restrictions imposed since March 2020 have indeed strongly conditioned modal choices and travel frequencies. Italy was among the first countries to suffer dramatic consequences in Europe and to have reported several critical issues in the transport sector, especially for local public transport (PT). In addition, several survey-based studies have mapped the demand for regional mobility in light of the major changes taking place in the world of work, with the introduction of smart working and the consequent reduction in travel. The change in living and commuting habits has also been due to a strong psychosocial change and especially due to the stress and anxiety that people have felt while moving. All this has led to an increase in the choice of the private vehicle for major daily travel as it is connected to a perception of greater safety and lower risk of infection. Therefore, the present work stands as a review of the literature related to different modal choices and travel trends in the Italian context, focusing on the factors that have changed choices in transportation and mobility. The review was conducted using keyword strings in Scopus and Transportation Research Integrated Database (TRID). The findings underscore the need to implement a new mobility to maintain a strong relationship between service operators and customers. The development and success of individual models will depend on the ability of operators to embrace the new needs of the community and on how well institutions are able to rethink the entire mobility ecosystem.

Was the low-fare public transport in Bonn a success? An evaluation of the climate ticket users and lessons for transportation companies

The transport sector is a major source of air pollution and thus a major contributor to the changing climate. As a result, in the recent past, driving bans have been imposed on cars with critical pollutant groups. As an international UN campus and self-proclaimed climate capital, the Federal City of Bonn declared a climate emergency in 2019 and participated in a federally funded “Lead City” project to optimise air quality. A key goal of the project is to reduce private motorised transport and strengthen public transport. Among the implemented measures, a “climate ticket” was introduced in 2019 whereby consumers could purchase an annual 365 € ticket for all local public transport. This paper reports on an analysis of that ticket’s changes in travel behavior.A quantitative survey (n = 1,315) of the climate ticket users as well as the multiple regressions confirm that the climate ticket attracted more customers to the buses and trams and that a modal shift for the period of the measure was recognisable. The multiple regressions showed that the ticket was perceived significantly more positively by full-time employed users than by unemployed people. The results also show that, in addition to the price, it is essential that travel time and reliability are ensured. Furthermore, the eligible groups of people, the area of coverage, and good connecting services should be extended. To sustainably improve air quality, this type of mobility service must be optimised and introduced on a permanent basis.

Comparative analysis of decarbonization of local public transportation: A real case study

Climate disruptions have prompted institutions to invest in zero-emissions technologies, in recent years. As a result, the transportation sector has witnessed a shift from internal combustion engines to electric. Several public transport companies have initiated the “Zero-emissions” project to introduce alternatives to diesel in their bus service. This paper delves into the impacts of transitioning from diesel-powered to electric buses. It starts by estimating emissions produced by buses and comparing them. Subsequently, the analysis evaluates the implications of renewing the fleet on the service, considering the change in bus capacity. Additionally, a profitability analysis assesses the Total Cost of Ownership, factoring in helpful life and average distance (kilometres) driven annually. Overall, the findings indicate that switching to electric buses is a promising approach towards achieving environmental objectives. The study shows that investing in electric buses, particularly those measuring 9-m, offers significant economic benefits while aligning with sustainability goals. The research demonstrates that electric buses yield a substantial reduction in global and local emissions when compared to their diesel counterparts. Adopting a comprehensive “well-to-wheel” perspective, electric buses achieve an impressive 68 % reduction in emissions. However, concerning local emissions, certain specific lines recorded values exceeded legal limits. While the initial investment costs for electric buses may surpass diesel buses, the total cost of ownership analysis conducted over 15 years indicates that electric buses can become more cost-effective over time. This cost-effectiveness and their environmental advantages strengthen the case for adopting electric buses to pursue sustainable transportation systems.

Observing Germany’s nationwide public transport fare policy experiment “9-Euro-Ticket” – Empirical findings from a panel study

In spring 2022, the German federal government announced responses to the 2022 cost-of-living crisis. These included among others, a nationwide local public transport ticket for 9 Euro per month. Available only in June, July, and August 2022, it allowed for unlimited travel on all local and regional public transport services in Germany. In transport policy research, this is an almost unprecedented behavioral experiment that allows studying travel behavior and the effectiveness of such instruments. We observed this natural experiment with a three-wave survey and a smartphone-based semi-passive travel diary based on waypoint tracking. We recruited 2,316 participants, out of which 907 agreed to participate in the tracking; the latter are primarily located in the Munich metropolitan region, and most got the 9-Euro-Ticket. 1,454 respondents have completed the three-wave survey and 684 respondents completed the survey and provided travel behavior data with the smartphone app. We find that public transport use increased particularly for 9-Euro-Ticket customers who had no travel pass before. Regular public transport use increased from 29 % before to 38 % during and to 32 % after the 9-Euro-Ticket for our nationwide panel, where around 20 % of 9-Euro-Ticket substituted at least some private transport trips with public transport during the 9-Euro-Ticket. The tracking results show that local public transport travel distances decreased by 37% after the 9-Euro-Ticket for solely 9-Euro-Ticket owners and by 30 % for travel pass holders. Further, discontinuing the 9-Euro-Ticket led to around one-third fewer active public transport users than those with the 9-Euro-Ticket but no travel pass before. The 9-Euro-Ticket caused the expected modal shift, but despite its low price, not all private transport trips were substituted, implying that such a policy instrument alone arguably does not suffice to achieve a successful mobility transition.

Adopting electric bus for improving efficiency in the local public transport sector: Analysis of facilitating conditions and their nonlinear relationships

Zero-emission vehicles (ZEVs) are technological innovations that have the potential to strengthen efficiency and sustainability improvement within the transportation sector. However, privately owned local bus transport firms lack the resources to make ZEVs especially Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) easily accessible for their logistics services. Therefore, this study proposes to pave the way for technological transformation in the public transport (PT) sector by exploring how these local bus businesses can facilitate the sustained use of BEVs in order to establish a better efficiency from their services. Specifically, the critical facilitating conditions for adopting batter-electric buses (BEBs) in privately owned local PT companies were obtained using Fuzzy Decision-Making Trial and Evaluation Laboratory (Fuzzy DEMATEL) while their nonlinear relationships of importance levels were predicted using adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference systems (ANFIS). A system dynamics model was proposed that illustrates the dynamic nonlinear relationships of the multiple effects of these conditions on transport efficiency (TE). Based on empirical evidence in Nigeria, the proposed methods were verified and the study results predict that government support, affordable electricity tariffs, access to electric minibuses and presence of charging infrastructure are foremost in boosting the sustained use of BEBs in the local PT sector. Meanwhile, government support improves TE more quickly in a short period while presence of charging infrastructure, affordable electricity tariffs and access to electric minibuses are more effective for stimulating TE over a longer period. This study has implications for decision makers and policy makers that design strategies for BEB adoption to improve TE in the local public transport sector.

Exploring accessibility and service quality perceptions on local public transportation in Thailand

This study aimed to analyze the relationship between perceived accessibility of service quality and intention to use public transportation systems. The sample population comprised 400 public transport users, aged 20–60 years. The study was divided into two parts. The first parttested the quality indicator of public transportation services by modifying the SERVQUAL method. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was then conducted and subsequently analyzed for the correlation between perceived accessibility of service quality and intention to use the public transportation system using the structural equation model (SEM). The results showed that the service quality measurement model consisted of 10 components, comprising 40 indicators. The values met the criteria and were suitable for use as indicators of local public transport service quality in Nakhon Ratchasima Province, Thailand. It was found that attitude was the factor that most affected the intention in using public transport, followed by perceived behavioral control and accessibility. Perceived service quality was considered an important variable for perceived accessibility. The study results indicate that service quality has an effect on perceived accessibility in public transportation systems, especially in terms of responsiveness, convenience, and safety. Enhancing the quality of service in these specific areas will heighten user awareness of easily using public transportation services. Furthermore, it is a pivotal factor in promoting better accessibility to public transport services in rural areas.The last part measured the heterogeneity in perceived accessibility and intention between the groups and found significant differences. The obtained results may be beneficial to the government and agencies involved in formulating policies to promote the use of public transportation and its accessibility. Additionally, the service quality indicators should be considered in improving the service quality of public transportation suitable for the area.

Securing access to Services of General Interest in remote regions – ethical perspectives and practical implications for spatial planning

Services of General Interest (SGI) are basic services that society and economy vitally need to function and develop. Securing access to these services is a key concern in many European spatial planning systems. In remote regions across Europe, SGI provision is facing challenges due to demographic and economic transformation processes. Opposing political proposals on how to address these challenges are often rooted in opposing ethical convictions. This article sheds light on the perspectives that different ethical concepts offer on SGI provision and explores the practical repercussions they entail. It is shown that proponents of libertarianism will advocate for allowing people to move to or stay in remote regions without adequate access to SGI as long as this is their voluntary and conscious decision, whereas proponents of egalitarianism will consider it a matter of justice to ensure universal access to SGI in remote regions even if this presupposes major societal efforts. Proponents of utilitarianism, it is shown, will consider it reasonable to expand SGI in densely populated regions, where provision is cost-effective and many people benefit from it, and to reduce it in remote regions, where costs of provision are high and users are few. These positions are illustrated using the examples of school education and local public transport. The article puts forward the view that while a reflection of the different ethical positions cannot resolve the challenges that SGI provision in remote regions is facing, it is often possible to find solutions for SGI provision that reconcile the seemingly contradictory demands resulting from the different positions. The reflection of the different positions thus contributes to reasoned, informed decision-making on SGI provision in spatial planning and beyond.

Greening in the Process of Providing Municipal Services of Local Collective Transport on the Example of Poland and Slovakia

The aim of the paper is to determine the relevance of services for public transport undertakings in terms of externalities. The article develops a methodology for researching and evaluating the quality of public utility services and the degree of saturation of the use of environmentally friendly modern technologies in the field of local public transport. Multi-criteria evaluation was used to assess the degree of quality of utility service delivery systems in the field of local public transport. The article is based on the experience of scientific partners from the University of Economics in Kraków and the University of Economics in Bratislava, using the examples of Poland and Slovakia.

Travel Experience and Reasons for the Use and Nonuse of Local Public Transport: A Case Study within the Community Interregional Project SaMBA (Sustainable Mobility Behaviors in the Alpine Region)

Travel Experience and Reasons for the Use and Nonuse of Local Public Transport: A Case Study within the Community Interregional Project SaMBA (Sustainable Mobility Behaviors in the Alpine Region)

A discrete choice experiment to evaluate the interest of Piedmont region citizens on MaaS

Recently an increasing number of goods and services tends to be offered as a service, of which one of the most promising is mobility. The Mobility as a Service (MaaS) paradigm provides the integration of most of the mobility services available within an urban/rural area in a single subscription. The interest of Piedmont Region citizens towards MaaS is investigated through a certain number of choice situations (DCE – Discrete Choice Experiment) in which the respondent must select an alternative from the given set, based on the characteristics of each alternative. To complete the survey, a number of classic questions (multiple choice and open-ended questions) is also submitted.The goal of the surveys is to understand the perception towards MaaS and identify the relevance of each modal alternative, to better design the composition of mobility bundles.The research showed that Piedmont citizens are strongly interested in MaaS solutions and that bundles with highest interest include Local Public Transport (LPT) as a base, with sharing services (car, bike, scooter) in urban areas and car rental or car-sharing in suburban areas.

Local public transport and neighbourhood satisfaction: The effect on older adults' subjective wellbeing

The Covid-19 pandemic has impacted older adults in terms of both physical (high mortality rate) and psychological health. In these challenging times more than ever, exploring which dimensions affect the older people's subjective wellbeing is relevant. As the literature has shown, older people prefer to age in place: the living environment and the presence of local services (including public transport) play a key role. The effects of social environment on older people's mobility, especially during the Covid-19 pandemic period remain a less studied topic. Within this context, the paper aims to explore the role of satisfaction with neighbourhood, local public transport, and socio-demographic characteristics in influencing subjective wellbeing in Italy, during the Covid-19 pandemic. A survey has been addressed to people aged over 65 years old in three Italian cities (Milan, Padua, and Varese). A structural equation model and an ordered logit model have been performed. Results show that older adults who are satisfied with their neighbourhood and are happy with the local public transport characteristics are more likely to have higher subjective wellbeing. Moreover, men, older adults living alone, and those who have suffered from an income reduction, due to the pandemic, show lower levels of subjective wellbeing.

Using Design Thinking to Create Sustainable Communities

This innovative practice paper discusses an example of a participatory design-led sustainability project. Using a Design Thinking approach to problem solving, the project brought together university staff and students and a Council around a local sustainability challenge. Design Thinking was applied as an interdisciplinary methodology with the objective to equip students with sustainability skills and competences, resulting in a replicable method for responding to local sustainability challenges. By empowering diverse participants to contribute equally and freely, our application of Design Thinking created positive spillover effects on students and staff sense of community. The focus of the Challenge was on the discovery and co-creation of ideas to solve a problem related to local public transport. The driving principle of the Challenge was that participants, also public transport users, could bring their own lived experience to the Challenge and therefore could co-create and put forward potential solutions with the support of a local Council, and sustainability and Design Thinking experts on campus. In the process of doing so, participants framed and reframed the challenge from different angles and perspectives, opening a co-creation dialogue about community needs on and off campus, and their role in contributing to sustainability locally.

Computer-Aided Planning of Radial and Diameter Routes in Local Public Transport Networks

Local public transport network planning is a complex procedure affected by many aspects (e.g., city structure, travel needs, the budget for the service, vehicle types, service frequencies, timetable optimization of parallel routes etc.). Due to the high number of possible solutions, finding the optimum is usually a problem with NP computational complexity. Although an extensive toolkit is available for evaluating specific networks, the number of versions that can be realistically examined and compared is highly limited. This implies that the routine and creativity of the network planning specialists play an important role in the selection of the examined networks. However, in some special cases, the search space can be narrowed so that all network versions can be automatically generated and compared. This paper presents such a case: when applying radial and diameter routes only, the main question is which directions should be connected to each other as a diameter route, or left alone as a radial line. The algorithm is presented on the example of the city Győr.

Measuring local public expenditure effectiveness using sustainable development goals

PurposeThis paper aims to propose a tool to assess local public expenditure effectiveness based on a framework of alignment between outputs, outcomes and impacts – the Index of Municipal Expenditure Effectiveness (IMEE). This index is composed of a set of indicators associated with the typology of local expenditure.Design/methodology/approachThe paper describes the methodological approach used in the development of the Index, considering the insights from the literature review and the opinion of a panel of experts. The indicators of outcomes and social impacts that are part of the Index are intentionally aligned with the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) as they provide an essential guide to assess public value creation in the current context. For simplicity purposes, three main components of municipal expenditure were considered, namely Education, Essential Public Services and Local Public Transportation. The Index is then illustrated through a pilot application, using data from five Portuguese municipalities.FindingsThis study argues that measuring the public expenditure effectiveness based on outcome and impact indicators can provide the data needed for local governments to better understand the effects of their activities over time, ultimately assessing their contribution to public value.Practical implicationsAssessing the impact of local spending is important to ensure the best use of public resources. Linking local public expenditures with the 2030 Agenda and the SDGs is a promising avenue to understand up to what extent the application of the public money is contributing to create public value by impacting on citizens’ lives.Originality/valueThe proposed IMEE contributes to addressing a gap identified in public organizations, including local governments, regarding the lack of consideration of expenditure and outcome/impact relationships, and the use of variables to measure long term impacts.

Electrifying Buses for Public Transport: Boundaries with a Performance Analysis Based on Method and Experience

It is widely expected that electric vehicles will be able to satisfy most road transport needs. The aim of this paper is to provide an answer to how far the electrification of buses used for local public transport can be pursuable through insight into the engineering problems and range, i.e., the autonomy on battery, as well as the efficiency of recharging systems. At first, a wide survey of the main solutions that are present on the market, or foreseen for the near future, concerning the electrification of fleets for LPT is provided. Thereafter, such solutions are compared through numerical applications and by using a practical case study, pertaining to the city of Turin (IT), where static inductive charging has been extensively experienced. Particular attention is paid to engineering problems and to the autonomy on battery of the vehicles as a function of their mass, electric energy storage system, charging opportunities and infrastructure, while comparing the time and efficiency of recharging systems. The authors conclude by recommending the most promising alternatives for battery electric buses while outlining their limits, striving to provide for the literature a research instrument, which is lacking, for delimitating the applicability of electric buses for LPT while outlining the viable solutions.

Local government policies and public transport decarbonization through the production and adoption of fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) in China

Based on semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders in Nanhai, this paper adopts an analytical framework to examine how a combination of infrastructure-pull, supply-push and demand-pull initiatives implemented by a small district government in southern China were able to facilitate socio-technical transitions to the public transport decarbonization through the establishment of hydrogen refuelling infrastructures, the adoption of fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs), and the development of production network on FCEVs. With neither massive investment from the central government nor captive linkage with global automakers, Nanhai out-performs other automotive powerhouses in China by accounting for 9.85 percent of FCEVs and 4.59 percent of all operating hydrogen refuelling stations in China, despite its land area only accounting for 0.01 percent of the country. The provision of hydrogen infrastructures and other pro-active local government initiatives (including financial incentives) facilitate the development of a competitive regionalized production network of about 90 (privately-owned) fuel cell electric buses makers and parts suppliers around the Xianhu Hydrogen Valley in Nanhai. This finding enhances our understanding on effects of (local) state policies on the socio-technical transitions to public transport decarbonization and the long-term development of hydrogen economies in other countries.