Livelihood Patterns Research Articles

An Unromantic Look at Pastoralism in Karamoja: How Hard-Hearted Economics Shows That Pastoral Systems Remain the Solution, and Not the Problem

Introduction As in most other dryland areas in Africa, the main economy in is pastoralism. Some low-input grain production, especially low-labour input, is also practised as a complementary activity (a no-lose strategy). Population densities are comparatively low and so land is readily available. With unpredictable annual precipitations at times as high as 1,000 mm in places, grain production can yield a significant percentage of a family's food needs at little cost--of course, in other years the yield may be insignificant. Development policy over half a century--shared by the succession of regimes and NGOs alike--has been to 'help' the pastoralist in to settle down and take up crop farming as a main livelihood. That the only areas where such a livelihood is at all possible were an integral and fuctional part of a managed, pastoral livelihood-ecosystem (i.e. the dry-season grazing reserves, mostly in the so called 'green belt') was either not recognized or not given adequate consideration. As humanitarian intervention in the region has been hooked to agricultural indicators, for decades has received significant quantities of food aid whenever the rains have not been good enough to support a viable crop harvest--which now appears to happen almost one year in two, and even for two or three years in succession. Yet for decades has not suffered the kind of prolonged drought that causes 'actual lack' of water or pasture (as different from 'lack of access'). In 2010, the logic of linking humanitarian intervention in a pastoral region to indicators based on crop harvests, was questioned. This led to a livelihood analysis study with the goal to understand how the population in actually made their living and how they coped with years of poor rains. The research involved several weeks of fieldwork, using a quantitative approach, (1) measuring households' sources of food and cash income (disaggregated by socioeconomic status principally defined by herd size). Three distinct areas, with different livelihood patterns, were researched separately: the settled 'green belt', that depends on crop farming; the drier areas where livelihoods are almost entirely based on livestock; and a belt where livestock predominates, but where the secondary crop agriculture also plays some role (FEG Consulting 2010a, 201b, 2010c). Three companion studies were undertaken into livestock marketing (Ezaga 2010), potential complementary livelihood activities (Ondoga 2010), settlement patterns and Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) (Maggunda 2010), and strategies for climate change (Mubiru 2010). The final analysis also made use of earlier household-economy baseline studies (OPM/SCiUG 2003; WFP 2004; WFP 2006). The following sections provide an overview of the findings based on the final analytical report (Levine with Ondoga et al. 2010). (2) Food Security: Wrong Assumptions The body of data used in our final analysis indicated that even in a year with almost complete crop failure, the majority of households in the agropastoral and pastoral areas of would be able to cope on the resources internal to the pastoral system (when allowed to manage them). In these two zones (as opposed to the settled green belt, where crop failure left the households without anything), external assistance would be necessary only for the very poor households (i.e. those with little or no livestock), in about the same proportion as in other areas of Uganda. The basic assumptions underlying development interventions in Karamoja, namely--(1) that the region suffers extreme poverty; (2) that it is vulnerable to frequent droughts; and (3) that pastoralism is inherently unsustainable--were therefore not confirmed. Findings concerning each of these assumptions are summarized below. (1) Karamoja is Extremely Poor' Household budgetary surveys which equate poverty with low cash-expenditure conclude that poverty is high in Karamoja. …

Vulnerability and Adaptation Analysis in Flood Affected Areas of Orissa

This article is an attempt to study about the way people adapt to the impact of climate change, especially with floods. It also looks at the sustainability of the coping mechanisms, which the communities adopt for this extreme event. This study tests for ex-ante and ex-post adaptation responses to weather risk for rural farm households of Orissa and also examines how poor rural families adapt with the changing pattern of livelihood. An examination of the coping mechanisms of the agricultural households during the flood period revealed a number of factors that include the sequencing of adaptation options adapted by the people responding to a particular event. The next step is to find out the factors affecting the success of the adaptation. The very important task then is to integrate those factors with the climate policy, which will have an adaptive solution in a sustainable way.

COOPERATION F LOCAL GOVERNMENT REPRESENTATIVES FOR THE LIVELIHOOD OF THE SUNDARBANS DEPENDENT PEOPLE

This study endeavors to find out the factors affecting dependency on forest resources and cooperation that Local Government Representatives (LGR) could extend to the forest dependent people. One hundred households were selected from the Koyra Sadar Union adjacent to the Sundarbans following deliberate sampling technique to conduct this study and questionnaire survey, focus group discussion and participatory rural appraisal methods were carried out. Most of the people in this union lives under the poverty line and about two-third of them predominantly dependent on the Sundarbans’ natural resources. LGR now is playing no role in the livelihood of the Sundarbans’ dependent people; however, there is need for cooperation to improve their livelihood pattern.

LIVELIHOOD PATTERN AND SECURITY OF WOMEN WORKING IN SHRIMP PROCESSING INDUSTRIES LOCATED IN SOUTHWEST BANGLADESH

Women play a crucial role in household management in Bangladesh. Economic responsibilities of the family are always expected to be borne by men. However, now-a-days the number of women’s participation in local and national economic sector is increasing rapidly. Shrimp processing industry is one of the foreign currency earning industries of the country and plays a vital role in including women in economic sector. However, compared to men in these industries, women still have a marginalized and vulnerable position. This paper assesses the livelihood pattern and security of women working in shrimp processing industries located in and around Khulna city. Mostly the illiterate (78.3%), young (below-22 years 52.5%) and married (70%) women work in these industries. These work forces are mainly migrants from the adjacent districts. They are having very low income (77.5% below Tk 2500 per month) and they live in houses made off golpata, bamboo, konchi, tin etc. They work there as temporary low skilled labors. A number of problems such as, oppression by co-workers and others, lack of job security, mal-adjustment with officials and co-workers, communication problem with higher authorities, look down upon by the society, live under suspicion of husband and others, gender discrimination, unequal rights in socio-economic life, etc. have been identified responsible for various physical, mental, social and professional insecurities for the women working in shrimp industries.

LIVELIHOOD AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF THE SUNDARBANS’ DEPENDENT PEOPLE: CASE STUDIES ON NALIAN AND BURIGOALINI RANGES OF THE SUNDARBANS

The Sundarbans Reserved Forest (SRF) is playing a significant role in local and national economy and is providing protection to the coastline as well as to the people living in the Sundarbans Impact Zone (SIZ). Presently, the area provides a livelihood to an estimated 3.5 million people. This study deals with the livelihood pattern of the people using both primary and secondary data sources. The study identifies people with different livelihood activities such as munda, fishermen, bawali, golpata collectors, salt farmer etc. Most of them are seasonal workers and their over all socio-economic conditions are below standard.

Solid Waste and Water Quality Management Models for Sagarmatha National Park and Buffer Zone, Nepal

The problem of supporting decision- and policy-makers in managing issues related to solid waste and water quality was addressed within the context of a participatory modeling framework in the Sagarmatha National Park and Buffer Zone in Nepal. We present the main findings of management-oriented research projects conducted within this framework, thus providing an overview of the current situation in the park regarding solid waste and water quality issues. We found that most of the solid waste generated in the park is composed of organic matter, paper, and minor reused waste that is mainly reused for cattle feeding and manure, while disposal of other nondegradable categories of collected waste (glass, metal, and plastic) is not properly managed. Particularly, burning or disposal in open dumps poses a great hazard to environmental, human, and animal health, as most dump sites situated close to water courses are prone to regular flooding during the rainy season, thereby directly contaminating river water. Pollutants and microbiological contamination in water bodies were found and anthropogenic activities and hazardous practices such as solid waste dump sites, open defecation, and poor conditions of existing septic tanks are suggested as possibly affecting water quality. Collection of these data on solid waste and water quality and compilation of management information on the targeted social-ecological system allowed us to develop consensus-building models to be used as management supporting tools. By implementing such models, we were able to simulate scenarios identifying and evaluating possible management solutions and interventions in the park. This work reveals insights into general dynamics that can support the quest for solutions to waste and water quality management problems in other protected areas and mountain landscapes where traditional livelihood and land use patterns are changing under the influence of a growing population, changing consumption patterns, and international tourism.

Creative destruction: Analysing flood and flood control in Bangladesh

This article explores the notion of ‘creative destruction’ in analyzing the effects of riverine floods on agricultural productivity in Bangladesh. It examines the monthly data on crop productivity for 1978–2000 in Bangladesh, to argue that, while severe flooding may cause decline in agricultural yield rate in disaster months, they may also provide open-access irrigational input that lead to significant increases in post-flood productivity. A more nuanced notion of ‘creative destruction’ is then applied to examine how structural measures of flood control have transformed agricultural practices in the country over the long run. The economic transformation that followed these changes, however, had unequal consequences for the communities. A majority of the stakeholders faced new kinds of risks that emerged with the new and unexpected changes in livelihood patterns and in disaster archetypes.

Pattern of livelihood and household food security among rural dwellers: Case of women pastoralists in Oyo state of Nigeria

The study of the pattern of livelihood and household food security among rural dwellers case of women pastoralist was carried out in Oyo state, Nigeria. Data were obtained from 100 women. The women are purposively sampled such that their husbands were pastoralists or that they are involved in pastoral farming. Structured and validated interview schedule was used to elicit necessary information through interviews. The data were analyzed with appropriate statistical tools. The majority of pastoral women was still young and was between the ages of 21 - 30 years. They therefore had strength to face the rigors and tasks involved in maintaining household food security. Also they were actively involved in income generating activities such as sewing, weaving mats and trading apart from dairy work. These activities enabled the women pastoralists in Oyo state to function effectively in ensuring that their households were food secured. The respondents were engaged in livestock farming with varying numbers of different domestic animals including ducks, chicken and goats. About 59% kept ducks, 54% had chicken while 58% had goats. Majority of them (78%) processed daily products such as “wara”, “nono” and butter. Over 90% of the respondents processed their products by boiling, while 69% used salt to process. They spent all the money realized to supplement family feeding by buying various food items needed for their families. The x2 showed that there was no significant difference between the marital status and numbers of wives, home structure and providing household food security. Based on the findings, it was recommended that storage facilities should be provided for the women pastoralists so as to curb wastage of their farm produce and other perishable commodities. They should also be given access to credit facilities so as to improve and increase the quantity and quality of their products.

Livelihood Patterns of Majhi and Kumal Communities in the Arun Valley, Eastern Nepal

The present paper is an attempt to portray the livelihood patterns of two marginalized communities such as Majhi and Kumal of Kumaltar village in the Arun valley, eastern Nepal. Data were collected from all 28 households of both communities. The findings show that agriculture and livestock now are the main occupations for their living. Prior to these, ferrying, fishing and pottering were their traditional occupations when they moved to Kumaltar in several years ago. As the production from agriculture and livestock is inadequate, other activities such as mobile trading of merchandise goods and local goods, pig and poultry farming, bamboo and ropes making, and local grains based country alcohol making have been adopted by them as alternative strategies for sustaining their livelihood. In addition, recently, the youths of these communities have migrated to different parts within the country, as well as in foreign countries for employment for better living in the village.The Geographical Journal of Nepal, Vol. 7, 2009: 7-14

Knowledge, power, livelihoods and commons practices in Dwesa-Cwebe, South Africa

This paper explores two aspects of the management of the commons in the Transkei area of Dwesa-Cwebe and traces them from the 1870s to today. The first is the intersection of power, politics and knowledge. National interests are privileged over local interests in the management of forests and grasslands that were controlled by local people before the onset of colonialism. This leads to the marginalisation of certain groups. The second is the economics of common resources. The paper contrasts communities' multiple livelihood strategies with the state's single strategy system. It looks at how state policies have changed people's status and their dependence on resources, and reflects on Dwesa-Cwebe's prospects of managing its commons now that local institutions have been undermined and livelihood patterns changed.

Participation, Authority, and Distributive Equity in East Timorese Development

The anthropology of development seeks to understand the complex encounter between international and national development regimes and local patterns of livelihood and being. As science and development move objects, at once material and discursive, through the networks of the social to reach “impoverished” others, local groups reach out to development actors to evaluate and appropriate their resources and accept or redirect those efforts. In a political interplay of disciplinary measures and localizing translations, development projects are re-invented, or aspects thereof refused, just as development actors strain to keep projects on track. With input from science and technology studies, this article explores the participatory, authoritative, and distributive dimensions to agricultural development in East Timor. Across four cases studies—a dairy, a greenhouse, a seed development program, and a permanent farming initiative—the politics of projects are compared and discussed within the broader context of colonial and postcolonial development. The article is based on a total of 1 year of fieldwork conducted in 2003, 2008, and 2009.

Participation, Authority, and Distributive Equity in East Timorese Development

The anthropology of development seeks to understand the complex encounter between international and national development regimes and local patterns of livelihood and being. As science and development move objects, at once material and discursive, through the networks of the social to reach “impoverished” others, local groups reach out to development actors to evaluate and appropriate their resources and accept or redirect those efforts. In a political interplay of disciplinary measures and localizing translations, development projects are re-invented, or aspects thereof refused, just as development actors strain to keep projects on track. With input from science and technology studies, this article explores the participatory, authoritative, and distributive dimensions to agricultural development in East Timor. Across four cases studies—a dairy, a greenhouse, a seed development program, and a permanent farming initiative—the politics of projects are compared and discussed within the broader context of colonial and postcolonial development. The article is based on a total of 1 year of fieldwork conducted in 2003, 2008, and 2009.

Measuring space–time accessibility to urban opportunities: a study on demand for and supply of activities performed by university teachers and students of Khulna City

People participate in various activity places leading their livelihood pattern (raising family, working, shopping, recreation, socializing, etc.) to have services/opportunities in their reach. Activity in urban opportunity places requires space and time, which in turn are subject to accessibility of those opportunity places. An activitybased approach within time geographical framework can explain how accessible the opportunity places are, considering space (travel barrier) and time (limited time) constraints. This study uses two checks to measure the accessibility of an opportunity: fi rst, whether the opportunity place is within the Daily Potential Path Area (DPPA) of a participant; and second, whether the participant’s activity reach time is within the opportunity opening hours. Potential Path Area (PPA) delimits a geographical area containing all feasible routes and urban opportunities given the space time constraints determined by the particular pair of fiout of home activities, and then DPPA is prepared with the aggregation of all individual PPAs in a day. This study presents accessibility level of 10 major urban opportunity places, which are selected based on the frequency of participation performed by the university teachers and students of Khulna. This paper concludes by explaining the usefulness of the activity-based approach used in this study in accessibility studies over conventional accessibility measuring approaches.

“Demand of Participants” or “Supply of Opportunities”: Measuring Accessibility of Activity Places Based on Time Geographic Approach

People participate in various activity places in leading their livelihood pattern (raising family, working, shopping, recreation, socializing, etc.) to have services/opportunities within their reach. Activity in urban opportunity places requires space and time, which in turns are subject to accessibility of those opportunity places. An activity-based approach within a time–geographic framework can explain how accessible the opportunity places are, considering space (travel barrier) and time (limited time) constraints. This study uses two checks to measure the accessibility of an opportunity: (1) whether the opportunity place is within the daily potential path area of a participant and (2) whether the participant’s activity reach time is within the opportunity opening hours. Potential path area delimits a geographical area containing all feasible routes and urban opportunities given the space–time constraints determined by the particular pair of fixed out-of-home activities. Then the daily potential path a...

Understanding and meeting the needs of the older population: a global challenge

Almost all developing countries are now experiencing demographic ageing. This paper examines the consequences of ageing for the poor. It assesses the extent to which the poor are participating in demographic ageing, or whether the process is largely restricted to relatively privileged groups. The paper observes that policy and research mainly focus on pensions programs, which have little relevance for most poor older people. It then describes livelihood patterns for poor elders, highlighting the importance of intergenerational exchange. Health policies are also found to largely ignore the needs of this group, and the expansion of private financing presents particular problems.

Changing livelihood pattern of slum dwellers in Delhi: From a squatter settlement to a resettlement colony

The movement of inhabitants from a squatter settlement to a resettlement colony can be perceived as a rise in the status of slum dwellers. The slum dwellers of the resettlement colonies now have better housing with security of tenancy. Also, they earn more than before, both in relative and absolute terms. But relatively better income and better housing have failed to bring about substantial change in living standards. The author examines the issues of a resettlement colony of Delhi in the local and global context. While the continuous pressure of population on infrastructures has deteriorated the physical and environmental conditions of the resettlement colony, the casualisation of employment in the informal sector has led to marginalisation of the poor residing in the resettlement colony.

Analysis Of Livelihood Characteristics Of Selected Fishing Communities In The Central Niger Delta, Nigeria

The paper examines livelihood characteristics of selected fishing communities in the Central Niger Delta, Nigeria. Findings revealed that about 45% of the respondents have multiple livelihood sources. Also, gender and age range of respondents have been shown to be statistically similar to the Nigeria 1991 census results, and about 35% of the respondents have been resident in the study area for a minimum of 35 years. There is a low educational level (93% of the respondent have a maximum of secondary school certificate). Based on the findings of the study it is recommended that livelihood pattern should form the basis for planning development projects if the benefits of developments are to become equitable, particularly to residents of rural communities in developing countries and whose livelihoods are eco-dependent Keywords : livelihood characteristics, fishing communities; Central Niger Delta Journal of Agriculture and Social Research Vol. 7 (1) 2007: pp. 34-42

Youth, mobility and rural livelihoods in Sub-Saharan Africa: Perspectives from Ghana and Nigeria

There has been little work done on the linkages between youth daily mobility and livelihood patterns and potential. Drawing on field studies conducted in Ghana and Nigeria, this article examines youth transport and mobility issues from a livelihoods perspective. Mobility affects livelihoods directly, in terms of access to jobs, and indirectly in terms of accessing education, health care and strong social networks on which future job opportunities may depend. The factors that help determine youth access to transport and mobility are considered, and the role of transport itself as a livelihood strategy (girls as porters, boys as transport operators) is examined.

Livelihood, Poverty and Morbidity

The tribals of the Orissa not only deserve a sustainable form of livelihood, but also proper access to adequate health care facilities, as poverty and morbidity go together to cause vicious circle. Because of a higher incidence of poverty, tribals fail to acquire adequate calories, nutrition and vitamins to keep them immune from various diseases. On the other hand, poverty further diminishes their earning capability due to the affliction of various seasonal and endemic diseases round the year. Hence, for the capacity building of poor tribals to enable them to come out of the poverty trap, apart from livelihood-sustaining measures in an era of economic liberalisation and globalisation, strengthening of public health care facilities in tribal areas needs foremost attention. More so as tribals are usually found to be residing in environmentally adverse and physically less accessible areas, with scattered human settlements, and are more vulnerable to various types of endemic, contagious and seasonal diseases due to mass poverty, ignorance and absence of proper health care in-frastructure and services. Based on the field data collected on different occasions in different tribal districts of Orissa for various research studies and also from published secondary data, this article makes an attempt to analyse the livelihood patterns and living conditions of the tribals of Orissa, and the concomitant morbidity and status of health care services in the tribal regions of the state. The article also critically examines the existing health care policy of the state and its efficacy and relevance for the downtrodden in the present context of economic reforms, and the withdrawal of the state from subsidised health care services.

An analysis of solid waste generation in a traditional African city: the example of Ogbomoso, Nigeria

This paper reports on patterns of household solid waste generation in the three distinct ecological zones that make up the city of Ogbomoso: the traditional core zone, the transitional zone developed under colonial rule and the suburban zone. It gives details of how total waste volumes and the components of waste varied over time in each of these zones — and there was considerable variation in these by day of the week and by month. For example, in the suburban zone, total waste generation for January was around half that for December; and although average incomes are higher in that zone, the per capita quantity of household waste (measured by weight) was not higher. Comparing household waste generation across the three zones showed that as education, income and social status increase, per capita waste generation declines, especially with regard to heavier organic waste products which account for more than three-quarters of the total waste generated in the study area. This is in part influenced by the differences in employment/livelihood patterns between the zones, and the study highlights how livelihood patterns and residents' possibilities for livestock raising influence the scale and composition of household waste. Finally, the paper highlights the importance for waste management of considering solid waste generated by enterprises in residential areas, including those run from home.