Livelihood Patterns Research Articles

Study on Livelihood through Adaptation and Diversification in Flood Prone Areas in West Bengal

The study points out the need for third party intervention in promoting the livelihood patterns which are less exposed to the damaging effects of flood. Self-employment in small business or trading is a good option for households to supplement their streams of income. But such business even though required small capital, required at least some degree of training and skills development. Therefore, the financing and consultancies agencies can intervene. Promotion of ancestral occupation based on traditional skills and local level resources may be considered. Once again intervention of government and non-government organizations is highly required. Similarly, non-farm wage employment can also be promoted by introduction of “year round” public projects and employment guarantee schemes. Promotion of activity-wise micro financing, self-help groups may be involved. However, none of the areas as identified can be taken sufficient to substitute the flood risk prone livelihoods as most of them are directly or indirectly dependent on agriculture in the context of a farming community. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/ijasbt.v2i4.11217Int J Appl Sci Biotechnol, Vol. 2(4): 446-450

Energy Balance of Rural Ecosystems In India

Abstract. India is predominantly an agricultural and rural country. Across the country, the villages vary in geographical location, area, human and livestock population, availability of resources, agricultural practices, livelihood patterns etc. This study presents an estimation of net energy balance resulting from primary production vis-a-vis energy consumption through various components in a "Rural Ecosystem". Seven sites located in different agroclimatic regions of India were studied. An end use energy accounting "Rural Energy Balance Model" is developed for input-output analysis of various energy flows of production, consumption, import and export through various components of crop, trees outside forest plantations, livestock, rural households, industry or trade within the village system boundary. An integrated approach using field, ancillary, GIS and high resolution IRS-P6 Resourcesat-2 LISS IV data is adopted for generation of various model inputs. The primary and secondary field data collection of various energy uses at household and village level were carried out using structured schedules and questionnaires. High resolution multi-temporal Resourcesat-2 LISS IV data (2013–14) was used for generating landuse/landcover maps and estimation of above-ground Trees Outside Forests phytomass. The model inputs were converted to energy equivalents using country-specific energy conversion factors. A comprehensive geotagged database of sampled households and available resources at each study site was also developed in ArcGIS framework. Across the study sites, the estimated net energy balance ranged from −18.8 Terra Joules (TJ) in a high energy consuming Hodka village, Gujarat to 224.7 TJ in an agriculture, aquaculture and plantation intensive Kollaparru village, Andhra Pradesh. The results indicate that the net energy balance of a Rural Ecosystem is largely driven by primary production through crops and natural vegetation. This study provides a significant insight to policy relevant recommendations for Energy Sustainable Rural India.

Applying stakeholder Delphi techniques for planning sustainable use of aquatic resources: experiences from upland China, India and Vietnam

The HighARCS (Highland Aquatic Resources Conservation and Sustainable Development) project was a participatory research effort to map and better understand the patterns of resource use and livelihoods of communities who utilize highland aquatic resources in five sites across China, India and Vietnam. The purpose of this paper is to give an account of how the stakeholder Delphi method was adapted and applied to support the participatory integrated action planning for sustainable use of aquatic resources facilitated within the HighARCS project. An account of the steps taken and results recorded is given for each of the five sites. Methodological challenges are discussed. It is illustrated how the method provides opportunities for systematically pursuing joint interaction with all concerned stakeholders in an iterative fashion, compatible with a joint learning approach to action planning. It was found that the tool was not as effective as expected in creating stakeholder consensus where issues had already been the object of previous research and discussions with local stakeholders or where asymmetrical power relations between stakeholder groups constrained the reliability of responses given by stakeholder Delphi panel members. But the HighARCS experience suggests that the stakeholder Delphi remains useful as a decision-making device for the selection of appropriate action when applied in combination with action plan feasibility assessment tools. The application of the stakeholder Delphi requires the presence of multidisciplinary and facilitating skills and competences within the implementing teams which should be considered before deciding to include a stakeholder Delphi as a decision-making tool.

Income, Migration and Social Adjustment of the Tribal People in Tripura:A Case Study of the ‘Tripuri’ Tribe

The purpose of this paper is to explore the relationship between income, migration and social adjustment of the migrated tribal people with special reference to the ‘Tripuri’ tribe of Tripura, India, with the help of primary data collected from structured interviews using a purposive sampling technique. The study reveals that the tribal people who migrated from their native places (rural areas) to urban areas, usually suburbs, have a better economic condition and a decent standard of living. Their livelihood patterns have changed after they have migrated to the urban areas. Here, their income levels have also increased along with expenditure. They live in small houses consuming less land, than they did in their native lands. Their standard of living is much below what they have expected before their decision to migrate. They find it difficult to adjust with the local people and the surroundings. The nature of employment in urban areas is such that the doors of the organised sector do not open to them easily. They are always last to be hired and first to be fired, and they usually get ill-paid jobs and do not have opportunities for education and training. Their children do not get adequate facilities to enrol in the good schools as the cost of living in the urban areas are very high. They are struggling hard socially and culturally to adapt and adjust in the new milieu far from their lush green land.

Commercial cultivation by farmers of medicinal plants in northern Bangladesh

Medicinal plants (MPs) are an important component of non-timber forest products (NTFPs), which are traditionally used in healthcare and source of livelihood all over the world. In an over-populated country like Bangladesh, the pressure on natural forests is immense; thus the cultivation of MPs can significantly contribute towards improving the livelihood of poor people, reducing the pressure on natural forests and enhancing biological diversity. Notwithstanding the growing recognition of its importance and economic and ecological potential, there has been little research on MPs, especially the cultivation, management and marketing aspects, in Bangladesh. Based on extensive fieldwork in a northern district of Bangladesh, this study explores various aspects of the cultivation, management and marketing of MPs. How collective efforts have brought economic and social benefits to communities was also examined in this study. It assesses the major processes and elements of management, identifies key problems and challenges and indicates ways of maximizing the potential of this important sector. The issues covered in this research include: farmers ’ perceptions and experiences; existing research and policy-making processes related to the MP sector; constraining factors (such as lack of processing technology, inadequate transportation, logistics, financial and storage infrastructure, lack of institutional capacity); markets, finance and networking; land use; pattern of livelihood and value chain issue.

Eliminating rabies in Tanzania? Local understandings and responses to mass dog vaccination in Kilombero and Ulanga districts.

BackgroundWith increased global attention to neglected diseases, there has been a resurgence of interest in eliminating rabies from developing countries through mass dog vaccination. Tanzania recently embarked on an ambitious programme to repeatedly vaccinate dogs in 28 districts. To understand community perceptions and responses to this programme, we conducted an anthropological study exploring the relationships between dogs, society, geography and project implementation in the districts of Kilombero and Ulanga, Southern Tanzania.Methodology/Principal FindingsOver three months in 2012, we combined the use of focus groups, semi-structured interviews, a household questionnaire and a population-based survey. Willingness to participate in vaccination was mediated by fear of rabies, high medical treatment costs and the threat of dog culling, as well as broader notions of social responsibility. However, differences between town, rural and (agro-) pastoralist populations in livelihood patterns and dog ownership impacted coverage in ways that were not well incorporated into project planning. Coverage in six selected villages was estimated at 25%, well below official estimates. A variety of problems with campaign mobilisation, timing, the location of central points, equipment and staff, and project organisation created barriers to community compliance. Resource-limitations and institutional norms limited the ability for district staff to adapt implementation strategies.Conclusions and SignificanceIn the shadows of resource and institutional limitations in the veterinary sector in Africa, top-down interventions for neglected zoonotic diseases likes rabies need to more explicitly engage with project organisation, capacity and community participation. Greater attention to navigating local realities in planning and implementation is essential to ensuring that rabies, and other neglected diseases, are controlled sustainably.

Evaluation of vulnerability factors for cyclones: The case of Patuakhali, Bangladesh

Tropical cyclones are considered as the most severe natural disasters in Bangladesh; they cause extensive damage, create losses in the country׳s economy, and affect social settings. The impact of natural disasters has been further intensified due to various vulnerability factors within the Bangladeshi community such as low income; shortages of food; lack of assets such as land and permanent housing; dense population, illiteracy. This study evaluates the vulnerability factors for cyclones in the community based in the Patuakhali region of south western Bangladesh. The bottom-up research approach was adopted for the study, whereby the local community was consulted for their viewpoints by using focus group interviews and semi-structured interviews. Different community groups and social categories including both men and women, from different age groups and livelihoods, participated in the study. The study revealed how the community׳s vulnerability to cyclones has been further aggravated by socio-economic factors such as social status, political influences and economic conditions. The majority of the community in Patuakhali has been “knowingly” vulnerable to cyclone disaster as a result of the lack of alternatives especially in terms of their livelihood patterns. The vulnerability of women, due to their lack of authority, domestic work, and fear of exposure within the society was also highlighted. The study revealed how vulnerability factors are interlinked with each other making them further difficult to manage. This calls for multi-faceted disaster risk reduction strategies that targets vulnerability factors deriving from different origins and root causes.

Adaptive livelihood strategies employed by farmers to close the food gap in semi-arid south eastern Zimbabwe

Rural households in semi-arid areas of southern Africa are confronted with numerous hazards that threaten the household food base. The new wildlife policy of establishing transfrontier conservation areas aims to increase conservation of wildlife resources while improving local livelihoods. This policy can be better appreciated by local people if it embraces knowledge of the adaptive strategies they employ to close the food gap. We assessed how different households responded to the major hazard, drought, in order to gain insight into how these households addressed critical questions of food availability. Informal interviews, key informant interviews and focus group discussions were conducted to determine how households can be disaggregated according to their livelihood patterns and a questionnaire was applied to learn how each group responded to drought. Data were analysed within the three livelihood types that were identified and described at local level as cattle-based, crop-based and non-farm based. We found that factors that aggravated the effects of drought are specific to the different household types and their responses were also specific to that particular household type. Disaggregation of the livelihood types revealed within and between type relations and interactions that are important to people in order to cope. For example, even though cropping is an important activity across the three livelihood types, specifically in cattle and crop-based types, the non-farm type becomes important in restocking inputs after a serious drought through cross-border trading. Livestock and cross-border trading are important coping strategies for all three livelihood types, with the cattle-based trading cattle, the crop-based trading goats and poultry and the non-farm based linking with markets for trading livestock, drugs and restocked inputs for the cattle-based and crop-based groups. These linkages among livelihood types are important factors in reducing vulnerability to change that only become visible as a result of this disaggregation. We conclude that additional policies of enhancing the resilience of local food systems by stimulating across-border livestock trading and formal market set-up and enhancing systems of adaptation that are already in existence (e.g., crop production in the Banyeni) can add value to the success of transfrontier conservation areas in southern Africa.

Local People Perception on Biodiversity Change In Lower Mustang

Local people response was obtained on biodiversity change in lower Mustang relying on social survey and from various data sources for natural assets. The main focus was centralized on the change in avifaunal and mammalian diversity and the effect of environmental change on agricultural/livestock forest as well as on grazing land. The change was detected on wildlife movement, livestock depredation, forest stock, palatable species and birds. Climate change is the key issue in conserving biodiversity and linking its goal in livelihood. Change in livelihood pattern seems more adverse factor for community development as urbanization is prevalent. Animals and birds solely dependent in the nutshell area are at increasing rate but transition (forest and agriculture) species are decreasing. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/init.v5i0.10256 The Initiation 2013 Vol.5; 68-74

Land poverty and emerging ruralities in Cambodia: insights from Kampot province

Rural change in Cambodia manifests itself in rapidly declining land availability for the smallholder sector, posing the question of how farmers may be able to deal with limited access to land. In this paper, we discuss with a case study village and household livelihood strategies of smallholders currently operating under land-constrained conditions. Based on an integrated assessment of a smallholder village in Kampot province, we illustrate in quantitative terms how land shortage is creating problems of surplus generation and liquidity issues in monetary and non-monetary flows. At the household level, livelihood diversification based on the involvement of productive resources other than land may play an increasing role, particularly in the future, when levels of land shortage may increase. At the village level, smallholder may respond through institutional innovation, in particular through the establishment of a community banking system and a paddy rice bank to provide money and rice credits to overcome transitory shortages and to cover investment costs for additional productive resources. Thus, in this case, we observe the emergence of new patterns of livelihood in rural areas, based on the integration of non-land-based economic activities and new institutional settings.

Tourism and Changing Pattern of Livelihood

Barahachhatra have got good food, shelter, entertainment, education and others through tourism and they have got standard life and tourism industry is being own of the great for them to change their lifestyle positively.Tourism industry is the employment generating industry in the context of our country. It gives employment for skilled and unskilled people. The employment opportunity has significantly increased in Barahachhatra with the development of tourism business especially by hotel industries and then hotel owner and employees have positively changed their lifestyle by the help of tourism. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/researcher.v1i2.9883 Researcher 1(2) 2013: 23-34

Impact of Tourism on Livelihoods

Wildlife tourism is gaining popularity day by day. With the increase in the number of tourist influx in Protected Areas (PA), new facilities to satisfy their needs are coming in the villages around the PA. Tourism has both negative and positive impacts in these rural areas. To know the impacts of tourism, a study was conducted in two villages namely Khatia and Mocha which are situated near Kanha National Park (KNP). The main aim of study was to identify the change in the lives of those villagers who have sold their land to resort/lodge owners. A survey was conducted of villagers who had sold their land in the last five years. Data was obtained regarding change in land use, use of income obtained from sale, reasons for selling the land, change in livelihood patterns etc. It was found out that the main reasons for selling the land included exasperation due to crop raiding by wild ungulates and the attractive price offered by the resort owners. The land use pattern changed drastically leading to a complete change in landscape from one dominated by agricultural fields to one choked by construction of posh resorts. The use of money realized from sale was majorly done to purchase land holdings in other villages or gypsies to be used for tourism purposes. Wilcoxon Signed Rank test shows that there is a significant increase in the income of villages after the sale although many marginal farmers are working as laborers on the same piece of land they once owned.

Leaving the Traditional Livelihood: A Case Study on Mawallis of Sundarban

The Mawallis are traditional occupational group in the local people of Sundarban. Wild honey collection is their main livelihood. They use most wonderful indigenous knowledge and technique to collect honey from the dense forest. It is their popular livelihood and income. Presently lots of issue affects their traditional livelihood. They try to hold on to their profession but poor socio-economical condition compels them to change their traditional way of earning. Some external and internal social, economical and environmental pressures are responsible for this change. At the same time new generation does not give any positive response in favour of this profession. So the tendency is very clear that it will change in near future. In this study, I try to find out the responsible socio-economical conditions of present scenario behind the changing patterns of traditional livelihood of mawallis community.

Structure and Mobility in a Delhi Slum: 1988–2013

Slums constitute the fastest-growing segment of most developing countries today. Their weight in the economy as well as politics of these regions is also likely to grow with time. The need to understand the changing economic profile and patterns of mobility inside slums of the twenty-first century through intensive longitudinal studies, along with macro surveys of their demography and livelihood patterns, is thus obvious. The present article draws upon my engagement, since 1988, with a Delhi slum called Aradhaknagar to present an outline of shifts in the occupational, income and assets profile of the community based on surveys, personal interviews and group discussions within Aradhaknagar and on comparisons with six other slum reports, from different cities of India, over the same broad period. While a small improvement in the living standards of both formal and informal sector employees is discerned in wages and assets held by concerned families since 1988, spiralling inflation seems to have hurt many informal sector workers in recent years. The article closes with an analysis of factors which seem to pull down workers trying to struggle around the bottom rungs of the urban social ladder and those that help in their efforts, occasionally.

Tourism as an Additional Source of Rural Livelihoods: An Experience from Two Villages of Rajasthan

The study has been carried out in two villages of Rajasthan—Oriya village in Mount Abu and Laxmon Ki Basti in Jaisalmer subdivision. In spite of being closely located to two tourist spots (Mount Abu and Sam Desert), the livelihood of the two villagers has shown vastly different patterns of development. While the inhabitants of Laxmon ki Basti are vulnerable and exposed to a variety of risks due to the low endowment of physical resources, low level of human capital (education and skills) and lack of proper institutional development, the quality of life is comparatively far superior for the residents of Oriya village. The study attempts to analyse the impact of tourism on livelihood patterns of the working population of these two villages. It is of special significance as an important source of economic activity for a majority of the working population in Laxmon ki Basti, although camel safari is seasonal and depends on the influx of tourists.

Analyzing land-use change in farming-pastoral transitional region using autologistic model and household survey approach

Land change science (LCS) strives to understand and model land-use change, which will further advance the understanding of multiple issues in the socio-ecological systems. Based on GIS/RS techniques, autologistic model, and household survey method, this study investigated major land use changes and their causes from 1978 to 2008 in Uxin Banner (county-level), Inner Mongolia in China and then developed an understanding of the relationships between household livelihood and land-use pattern. Results showed that cultivated land increased from 1988 to 2000, and leveled off after 2000. Built-up land increased stably for the period 1978–2008. The change of grassland and bare land differed among the three periods. From 1978 to 1988, grassland increased by 23.3%, and bare land decreased by 20.48%. From 1988 to 2000, bare land expanded by 1.7%, but grassland declined by 1.3%. From 2000 to 2008, an increase in grassland area by 1.8% was observed, but a decrease in bare land area by 9.0% was witnessed. The autologistic models performed better than logistic models as indicated by lower Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) values. Factors associated with human activities significantly correlated with the change of cultivated land, forest land, grassland, and built-up land. The produce prices and extensive cultivated land use are major issues in the farming area. This study suggests that completing land circulation systems and maintaining the stability of price are effective solutions. By contrast, reclamation and overgrazing are major concerns in the pastoral areas. Implementing environmental policies effectively, transferring population out of rural pastoral areas, and developing modern animal husbandry are effective ways to address these issues.

Commercialization unsustainable to Himalayan environment

Indigenous people of north western Himalayan region of India utilize a wide range of biological resources for subsistence. The age-old practices of resource utilization have supported the rural economy with equity and social justice and conservation of resources since generations. However, in recent times, due to market demand, the biological resources are subjected to premature and frequent harvesting of ruthless exploitation by unskilled people particularly from outskirt of people. In addition to this, unfavorable government forest policy and ignoring people’s participation in decision-making and changing climatic conditions are some of the prime factors responsible for changing traditional resource management practices. Over increasing population pressure demand lead for market oriented commercial demand has resulted in over-exploitation of some of the plant resources at alarming pace. This calls for the development of resource management techniques built up on traditional knowledge capable of meeting the challenges of conservation on the one hand and socio-economic development of the local people on the other. Changing indigenous resource management practices in north western Himalaya imperils herbal based health care system and livelihood pattern.

Island Char Resources Mobilization (ICRM): Changes of Livelihoods of Vulnerable People in Bangladesh

This paper presents a pen picture about the changes of livelihood patterns to the char people, mostly living under poverty in Bangladesh. The study was conducted on the three Northern Districts such as Nilphamari, Lalmonirhat and Pabna in Bangladesh, where the Char Resources Mobilization project was provided by an international non-government organization—Concern Worldwide Bangladesh. The study used mixed method approach where quantitative data were collected from 378 households (126 from each District) using structured interview schedule. A number of qualitative data collection methods such as focus group discussion, participant observation, community mapping, case study, and key informants interview guidelines were used to collect data about the conditions of the Char people in terms of understanding its connection with their livelihoods and socio-economic consequences. This study compares the changes with influential factors with a baseline survey conducted in 2007. Findings showed that there were a number of areas such as education, income, family assets and properties, annual household income, employment, savings, improving market chain, food intake and food security, presence of governmental and non-governmental organizations’ services and awareness about disaster and vulnerability and coping strategies were found positive. The study also observed some negative changes on assets base and livelihood options. The paper argues that the findings on these changes will help to formulate policy on poverty alleviation for the government and non-government authorities who implement the similar type of programmes.

Shrimp Cultivation with Water Salinity in Bangladesh: The Implications of an Ecological Model

Despite unplanned and haphazard expansion of shrimp cultivation that immensely affects on the coastal regions of Bangladesh, the exploration of its adverse effects has not received significant attention from the researcher community yet. There were few researches and studies in Bangladesh conducted to elicit the colossal effects of shrimp production at different times that did not particularize its focus on proposing an ecological design of shrimp production. In order to elicit the concomitant impacts and propose an ecological model of shrimp cultivation based on secondary data, the present study was conducted by applying ‘Systematic Review and Content Analysis’ as research method. The study findings manifest that the continuous and unregulated shrimp farming has immense impacts on human health, ecology, environment and sustainability though few of them directly benefit the shrimp farmers and the people who live around them. The extensive farming systems negatively expedite the processes: infringement of mangroves, intrusion of salinity, degradation of land, de-stabilization of coastal ecosystems. The major socio-economic effects challenge the patterns of livelihood pattern, displacement of family and social structure, internal migration, and livestock. The coastal regions suffer from environmental degradation due to increased salinity of soil, canals and ponds within dams, reduction in grazing field and livestock, changes in the cropping calendar and its pattern, bio-diversity. Ecological aspects and sustainability are also overlooked during the shrimp cultivation. In conclusion, proper implementation of the resilient strategies designed in an ecological model can minimize the adverse effects on the coastal dwellers and local environment, and improve the unplanned shrimp cultivation process in similar areas of Bangladesh.

Exploring Agricultural Livelihood Transitions with an Agent-Based Virtual Laboratory: Global Forces to Local Decision-Making

Rural populations are undergoing rapid changes in both their livelihoods and land uses, with associated impacts on ecosystems, global biogeochemistry, and climate change. A primary challenge is, thus, to explain these shifts in terms of the actors and processes operating within a variety of land systems in order to understand how land users might respond locally to future changes in broader-scale environmental and economic conditions. Using ‘induced intensification’ theory as a benchmark, we develop a generalized agent-based model to investigate mechanistic explanations of relationships between agricultural intensity and population density, environmental suitability, and market influence. Land-use and livelihood decisions modeled from basic micro-economic theories generated spatial and temporal patterns of agricultural intensification consistent with predictions of induced intensification theory. Further, agent actions in response to conditions beyond those described by induced intensification theory were explored, revealing that interactions among environmental constraints, population pressure, and market influence may produce transitions to multiple livelihood regimes of varying market integration. The result is new hypotheses that could modify and enrich understanding of the classic relationship between agricultural intensity and population density. The strength of this agent-based model and the experimental results is the generalized form of the decision-making processes underlying land-use and livelihood transitions, creating the prospect of a virtual laboratory for systematically generating hypotheses of how agent decisions and interactions relate to observed land-use and livelihood patterns across diverse land systems.