Livelihood Patterns Research Articles

Forest based livelihood pattern of tribal communities in Assam, India

This study was conducted in Karbi Anglong and Dima Hasao districts of Assam to evaluate role of forest resources including non-timber forest products (NTFP) on livelihood of people. Results revealed that dependant villagers got benefits from community resources, i.e. staple food from jhum (shifting) or other forms of cultivation, NTFP (fruits, leaves and vegetables), small timber and medicinal herbs etc. Collection of various forest products in terms of minor and major forest products from various community forest areas as well as from some reserved forest area indicates the importance of forest based livelihood in the districts. Total average annual collection per household recorded as Rs. 15, 560/-from different major forest products among the beneficiaries of NERCORMP and the highest from timber. So far NTFP, annual average collection recorded at Rs. 13, 252/per household and bamboo contributed the maximum percentage (33.4%). Cultivated and value added forest products also contributed a section of their income annually among the beneficiaries. Whereas, non-beneficiaries were seen a bit reluctant to come forward for management of their resources. Thus forest resources were seen utilised in various ways for their livelihood management in the study area.

Adaptation Strategies of the Sustainable Livelihood Considerations for the Internal Displacement Women in Sri Lanka

Intensification of forced population displacements as an onslaught of ethnic conflicts and human rights violation negatively affected the socio-economic status of many South Asian countries. Sri Lankan Internal Displacement (IDP) population escalated at a soaring rate subsequent to the historical military triumph over Tamil Eelam (Civil War) rebellions. Cataclysms of the prolonged insurgence disrupted livelihood activities thus imposing socio-economic impediments amidst thousands of displaced people. Among the affected, women were considered as most vulnerable. Owing to the loss of their counterpart family burdens shifted on their shoulders, in making them the de facto heads of households. These women engaged in numerous entrepreneurial activities in diverse sectors of the economy in order to supplement their families. Unfortunately, the outbreak of Eelam war 3 erupting from Eastern Sri Lanka destroyed many of their livelihoods. Despite such trauma women of North-eastern part of Sri Lanka, the sample under study were recently resettled from IDP camps to their previous villages. The IDP women were depend on government and International nongovernmental organization (INGO) assistance than adapting to the changes of their independent sustainable livelihood pattern. These women entrepreneurs found nothing than war ruins on their return hence, facing immense constraints to continue their livelihood activities as addressed, dependence rate also very high and current initiatives taken by the government/INGOs, were not sufficient and prevailing with some issues of their assistance programmes. There is requirement to make them independent entrepreneurs by providing training, changing mind sets for adaptation of the new livelihood. Further adaptation strategies by using local resources were discussed.

Role of Microcredit towards Socioeconomic Empowerment of Pakistani Urban Women

The microcredits offered to the un-bankable poor women are perceived to be instrumental inimproving the livelihood patterns and empowering the womenfolk around the globe. The present qualitative st...

Analysis of VIA and EbA in a River Bank Erosion Prone Area of Bangladesh Applying DPSIR Framework

This study aims to set up a comprehensive approach to the Vulnerability and Impact Assessment (VIA) of river erosion and to suggest Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) practices. Based on the analysis of vulnerability using the Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response (DPSIR) framework, this paper discusses some of the significant climatic (rainfall pattern, temperature, seasonal drift, cold wave and heat wave) and non-climatic (river erosion, repetitive death of field crops and agrochemicals) forces in the Kazipur Upazila (Sirajganj District)—a river erosion-prone area of Bangladesh. Both primary (Key Informants Interview, Household Survey, and Focus Group Discussion) and secondary (climatic, literature review) data have been used in revealing the scenario of climatic stress. The analysis revealed a slightly increasing trend of mean annual temperature, and a decreasing trend of total annual rainfall from 1981 to 2015, which have been supported by people’s perception. This study found that river erosion, the increase of temperature and the late arrival of monsoon rain, excessive monsoon rainfall, high use of agrochemicals, and flow alterations are major drivers in the riverine ecosystem. These drivers are creating pressures on agricultural land, soil fertility, water availability and livelihood patterns of affected communities. Hence, floating bed cultivation, integrated pest management, use of cover crops, reforestation, the introduction of an agro-weather forecasting system, and a new variety of flood tolerant species have been suggested as potential EbA to cope with river bank erosion and to increase the capacity of the affected ecosystem.

Introduction - Submergence: A special issue on Atlantis and related mythologies

Over the last decade there has been a growing awareness of the current and likely future impacts of rising sea levels on low-lying islands and coastlines. For island nations such as Kiribati, there is a very real threat of submergence of habitable low-lying areas with a substantial proportion of the population requiring relocation to elsewhere, either collectively – allowing them to reconstitute as a single diasporic community – or else in fragmented and dispersed form. Similarly, the inhabitants of chars (temporary river islands) in Bengal may have to live with a more extreme volatility of emergence and submergence. 1 Such communities are also likely to suffer profound inter-generational shock and senses of dislocation. This of course true of all involuntary migrations but is arguably more so for such migrants in that submerged lands cannot be credibly imagined as places to return to and/or places in possession of residual cultural heritage that the displaced can identify with. As history makes apparent, displacement of populations due to changes in sea levels and/or other events has characterised human existence ever since our species’ initial movement out of Africa. 2 But while many archaeological, climatological and geographical histories have examined communities that have demonstrably accommodated this in their livelihood and habitation patterns, 3 speculation as to the likely socio-psychological impacts of these patterns have been minimal. In this regard, Jim Leary’s study The Remembered Land: Surviving Sea-level Rise after the Last Ice Age (2015) offers a valuable foray into the field. His volume describes the stages of progressive inundation of the area of land formerly lying between the east coast of England and the opposite coasts of Belgium and Holland. Referring to this region as ‘Northsealand’, 4 he initially sketches the nature of the inhabited region during the early Mesolithic period (based on his interpretation of fragmentary archaeological evidence) and then goes on to speculate as to how the human population of the low-lying region may have adapted to global warming and sea-level rise. Having characterised Northsealand as “a mostly lowlying, flat and fluvially dominated landscape... created by the processes of rivers and streams” (2015: 16) he goes on to contend that the impact of sea-level rise on ecosystems and on areas of stable dwelling land would have been gradual (rather than catastrophic), requiring groups to re-locate to areas of higher land and/or “led to groups inhabiting

Livelihood pattern among the Tea garden labours: Some Observations.

31Aug 2016 Livelihood pattern among the Tea garden labours: Some Observations. Anand Sharma and Biplob Bhuyan. Department of Anthropology, Dibrugarh University, Dibrugarh, Assam. Department of Anthropology, Nandalal Borgohain City College, Dibrugarh, Assam.

Livelihood pattern of elderly street beggar in Dhaka city

Begging is one of the major social problems. There are some certain changes as the result of urbanization. The people used to beg as they are losing the social security’s following the breaking up of the joint family. The begging has expanded all around in Bangladesh. The beggars are in bus, markets, roads, houses in different places. General objective of the study was to know the situation of the old aged people engaged in bagging in Dhaka city. Specific objectives were to know the family background of the aged-beggars, to understand the socio-economic factors those are responsible for old age begging and to know the quality of life/ life style of old age street beggars. It was a qualitative study has used to explore causation in order to find situation of the old age beggars and their condition, situation as well. After analyzing the cases, it is seen that the majority are in begging because of they are not having assets and income securities. The male cases are widower, females are widow or abandoned. Some issues are also serious including the medical, food and habitat which are very important indeed. Every older person wants to be active in later life. By which he or she takes a part of development for the country and nation everyone should be aware to fulfill their daily needs. We should take some necessary steps in individuals, family, society, country as well globally for the well being of elderly street beggar in various places. Asian Australas. J. Biosci. Biotechnol. 2016, 1 (2), 346-352

Rice crop residue management and its impact on farmers livelihood - an empirical study

The study aimed to examine the present status of rice crop residue management and its impact on farmers’ livelihood covering two sub-districts in Mymensingh district of Bangladesh. A total of 100 farmers (50 for crop residue practicing farmers and 50 for the farmers involved in traditional farming) were selected randomly for data collection. A combination of descriptive, statistical and mathematical techniques were applied to achieve the objectives and to get the meaningful results. The results of descriptive statistics showed that retention was found higher in far distance plots from homestead. No retention of crop residues was found in case of Aus and Aman rice. The whole retention was found only in case of Boro rice. The shortage of labour in season and the wage rate were also important factors for the retention of crop residues. However, farmers’ perceptions about the use of crop residues were mostly adding organic matter to the crop field followed by mulching and feeding animal. The recycling of resources among crop retention and livestock has the great potential to return a considerable amount of plant nutrients to the soil in the rice based crop production systems. Due to crop residue practices, crop and livestock both were benefited through resource interdependences. The sampled farmers were benefited from retention of crop residues by improving soil quality, soil moisture, etc.; and farmers used less amounts of fertilizer, irrigation water, etc. for the succeeding crops. Consequently, succeeding crop productivity, profitability and annual income were increased significantly. The result of logit regression model shows that age of household head, farm size, agricultural income and non-farm income were found as significant variables in explaining the variation in crop residue adoption of farm households. To assess the livelihood pattern of sample farm households through asset pentagon approach, noteworthy improvement was found s on different capitals. The study identified some problems regarding crop residue management and finally, recommended that if the farmers get proper training for such management, it would be helpful to improve their livelihood.Progressive Agriculture 27 (2): 189-199, 2016

A Study of Marginal Cardamom Farmers Livelihood and Occupational Pattern in Munnar District

Objective: The current study focuses on the livelihood and the occupational pattern of cardamom farmers in Munnar district. The livelihood of the people has been changed radically nowadays, due to globalization. The current study analyzes various perspectives of the livelihood of Cardamom farmers in Munnar because, the farmers who indulge in hill area cultivation have poor earnings, fund management, and suffer from seasonal problems. Methods/Analysis: The data have been collected by the interview method from 75 cardamom farmers is Munnar district. The simple random sampling method was followed by the researcher and the data was collected from them. The seventy five data collected from cardamom farmers of Munnar district have been analyzed by using SPSS software. Descriptive statistics, correlation and regression analysis were carried out. Findings: The major finding is out of 3 factors affecting the livelihood: occupational pattern issues, livelihood issues, saving pattern; income pattern from the occupational issues accepts the livelihood in greater manner. Applications/Improvements: The study will be an eye opener for the economist, government officials and social activist in enhancing the welfare measures of cardamom farmers.

Livelihood and vulnerability of the Santals community in Bangladesh

This study is about the livelihood of one of the Bangladesh ethnic tribal communities, the Santals. Being the minority, the Santals faces some challenges to adjust to political, social, economic and natural changes that came in their way during the last three hundred years. Due to multi-sectoral industrial development, the natural resources which are the primary sources of livelihood for the tribal communities are being depleted. This study aims to find the impacts on the livelihood pattern of the Santals due to the depletion of the common pool resources and how they are coping with this situation. This study identifies that pragmatic and comprehensive arrangements for the Santals is necessary so that they can continue living by preserving their ethnicity and cultural diversity. Keywords: Santals, tribal community, livehood, vulnerability

Vanishing Knowledge of Plant Species in the Wadi Allaqi Desert Area of Egypt

The distribution and abundance of plant species are strongly linked to the physical environmental and thus to anthropogenic disturbances. Changes in desert vegetation, in particular, can have drastic impacts on human livelihoods in these areas as ecosystem services may be affected (Dubroeucq and Livenais 2004; Klintenberg et al.2007; Kayhko et al.2011; Rohde and Hoffman 2012). The Wadi Allaqi Biosphere Reserve is a hyper-arid desert in southern Egypt, inhabited by Bedouin. Traditionally, the Bedouin of Wadi Allaqi are a highly mobile group of pastoralists who follow seasonal migration routes taking advantage of local plant species as food, fuel, medicine, construction materials, and fodder for their livestock (Belal et al.1998; Badri and Hamed 2000). Changes in environmental conditions of the wadi, however, have led to a change in composition of the native vegetation and its utilization by the Bedouin, which in turn has impacted their livelihood patterns (Briggs et al.1993; Solway and Mekki 1999; Shaltout et al.2010). The construction of the Aswan High Dam in from the 1960s and the creation of a permanent water resource in the form of Lake Nasser, in particular, have radically altered the natural environment and associated vegetation in this hyper-arid area (Pulford et al.1992; Springuel 1994; Belal et al.1998). Several studies have demonstrated the strong effects of Lake Nasser on the vegetation of the lower part of the wadi system, which drains into the now-inundated Nile valley in Egyptian Nubia (White 1988; Springuel and Murphy 1990; Springuel and Mekki 1994; Briggs et al.1999; Badri and Hamed 2000; Briggs et al.2003; Sheded et al.2006; Shaltout et al.2009; Yacoub 2009; Shaltout et al.2010). Many Wadi Allaqi Bedouin have migrated and settled on the shores of the Lake in order to take advantage of this water resource and the newly established grazing areas. As a result, these traditionally nomadic people have adopted a semi-settled pattern of life (Briggs et al. 1993; Ali et al. 2000). A more recent development is a settlement in Wadi Allaqi with houses, schools, and health facilities provided by the Egyptian government, creating new livelihood possibilities (Springuel and Belal 2001). As part of this development, Allaqi Village was built in 2003. In this study, we investigate changes in plant species knowledge of the Bedouin community in Wadi Allaqi Biosphere Reserve to assess the effects of the new settlements on the shores of the Lake in the context of the socioeconomic dynamics of the area.

Changing Socio-economic Structures and the Challenge of Secondary Schooling

Secondary education has been a relatively neglected area in India, both at the level of policy and research. Statistical data at the secondary level of education reveals a bleak picture in terms of enrolment and completion rates. This article explores the underlying reasons for the dismal scenario at the secondary level of education by situating it within the larger political economy and livelihood patterns in a rural region. The research is based on an ethnographic study of parents and children from labouring households in a village in Odisha in 2008–2009.

PENGARUH STRATEGI NAFKAH TERHADAP DINAMIKA KEMISKINAN DI WILAYAH HULU DAN HILIR SUNGAI CIMANUK, JAWA BARAT

This study examined the effect of livelihood strategy on poverty dynamics in upstream and downstream region of Cimanuk Watershed, West Java. Study used cross-sectional and historical design. Study was conducted in Garut Disctict as upstream region and Indramayu District as downstream region. This research involved 138 families who have preschool and school child. The families were chosen by purposive sampling and the data was obtained by interview using questionnaire. Multinomial logistic regression was used to find factors influencing poverty dynamics status. The result showed that poverty in upstream region was dominated by moving into poverty dynamic, whereas poverty in downstream region was dominated by always poor dynamic. Families in downstream region have higher possibility to moving out of poverty than families in upstream region. Multinomial regression analysis showed that livelihood strategy had influence on poverty dynamics. Human capital investment in formal education and strengthening local-based livelihood patterns should be encouraged to reduce poverty.

Tracking local dwelling changes in the Chittagong Hills: perspectives on vernacular architecture

ABSTRACTHistorically, geographers, anthropologists and colonial British administrators (1860–1947) frequently mentioned two ethno-geographical categories – khoungtha and toungtha – when referring to the tribal groups in the Chittagong Hills of Bangladesh. Some of these early works considered the livelihood patterns of these groups and the nature of their social and economic interactions. However, a discussion of the changes to their vernacular built environment has escaped any serious investigation. Using empirical findings, this article examines the changes to architectural practices of lowland and highland groups in the socially and ethnically complex region of the Chittagong Hills. Narrowing the discussion to the toungtha Mru ethnic group, this article also examines religious patterns, building techniques and spatial changes in a remotely placed, relatively inaccessible part of the hills where the built environment is still a strong cultural priority.

Coastal livelihoods in transition: How are Vietnamese households responding to changes in the fisheries and in the economy?

This article is concerned with how far-reaching economic and ecological changes are affecting the livelihoods of coastal households in Vietnam. In particular, we are interested in the livelihood effects of two aspects of this changing environment: (1) the transformation of the fisheries sector, including declining stocks and species loss and the rapid expansion of aquaculture, and (2) the broader structural change in the Vietnamese economy, from household-based primary-sector activities to wage and salary employment and self-employment outside the household. Our analysis, based on a survey of 599 households in 12 coastal communes in two provinces, shows considerable changes in livelihood patterns over the decade covered by the survey. Over one-third of the responding households reported a different primary earnings source in 2012 than in 2002. Fewer relied on aquaculture as their main livelihood activity in the later year. While aquaculture, encouraged by official policy, has assumed an increasingly dominant position in fish production in Vietnam then, this is not necessarily a shift that has worked to the benefit of households in the coastal communities we studied. For most, aquaculture has not generated very high incomes so some are making it a less important aspect of their livelihood portfolio, not dropping it completely but shifting productive efforts to other livelihoods. Meanwhile, economic growth and structural change have created new opportunities for wage employment and self-employment for growing numbers of households. However, human and financial capital are necessary conditions for taking advantage of such opportunities arising from Vietnam's economic development, which raises concerns about growing economic inequality in the country's coastal communities.

Rural Employment and Labour Livelihood in Bihar: Village Level Analysis

The study analyses the changing employment and livelihood pattern of labor households during the last four years using panel data. The labor households are those who earned more than fifty per cent income through wage earning in farm and non-farm sectors. There is decline in proportion of labor households but clear evidence of transition of labor force has been observed from farm to non-farm sector during last four years. Some of the self-employed households in the agricultural sector moved towards the labor force, indicating a rise in the number of land owning labor households.Literacy level of laborers showed increasing trend but about one–third woman laborers are still illiterate in Bihar. There is no cast bar in joining the labor force. Asset poverty is very high and the incidence of livestock possession also declined continuously which was due to increase in fodder price, division of family, un-renumerative price of milk, introduction of tractor for ploughing. Labor households' access to toilet increased but about three-fourth of them still do not have toilet in the area under study. There was increase in employment for male in both farm and non-farm sector but increase was higher in non-farm sector than farm sector. Women employment in farm sector declined from 69 days in 2010 to 41 days in 2013 whereas there was an increase their employment in non-farm sector. The transition of labor force from farm to non-farm sector has been fast during last four years. The role of non–farm sector in providing rural employment has increased and strategy to increase non-farm employment may be one of potential pathways for alleviating poverty in Bihar. Some of the labor employed in farm sector and self-employed households in the agricultural sector moved towards the non-farm sector for employment. The trend in real wage rate showed that non-farm wage has grown faster than the farm wage. We observed that wage employment in general is superior to self-employment on very small size of farms in rural areas. Both farm and non–farm sectors witnessed increase in wages of labors during last four years but the increase was much higher in non-farm sector (65%) than farm sector (15%).Male laborers were employed on higher wages than women laborers in both farm and non-farm sectors in villages under study. Wages in farm sector in not only low but it does not provide regular employment whereas wages in non–farm is higher and employment is more regular. Wage determinant analysis revealed that a healthy, educated and land owning adult male laborer is likely to get higher wages whereas the caste of labor is not a significant factor for payment of wages in rural Bihar. Non-farm sector emerged as a major source for providing employment and generating income on labor households. Income through farming constituted about 8 to 12 per cent of total income on labor households but it fluctuates from year to year because farming is still dependent on extent of rainfall. Remittances emerged as the second most important source of income on labor households because migration for gainful employment is one of the important strategies for maintaining in Bihar, particularly on poor households. Analysis of income of poor and non-poor labor households indicates declining trend in income through wages through non–farm on poor labor households but it observed increasing trend on non-poor labor households, indicating positive effect of non-farm employment in increasing income and alleviating poverty on labor households. Income through employment in agriculture sector is declining but agricultural is still likely to be a key driver of growth even in the non-agricultural economy through linkages. Policies to extend systematic skill and training opportunities will help better opportunities of employment for migrants and non-farm workers which will help reducing poverty and improving livelihood of labor households in rural Bihar.Institutional credit flow is lower in Bihar and Agricultural labor households have much less access to institutional sources of credit. They depend on non–institutional credit sources for meeting their credit need. About one-third of labor households borrowed mainly meeting expenses of consumption credit including for meeting expenses of treatment of their family members.Various programs for welfare and development of the weaker section are implemented by different departments of government. But labor households have more access to social security schemes and project targeted to poor households (BPL families) than program launched for benefits of bot poor and non-poor households. However, programs like, MANREGAS, IAY, KCC and SHG have almost seized to operate in villages under study. Hence, there is need to revive these projects with more focus to the weaker section of society for the benefit of labor households.

Integrated farming and its impact on farmers’ livelihood in Bangladesh

The study was conducted to identify the present status of integrated farming and its impacts on farmers’ livelihood in comparison to mixed farming. Following two stages sampling procedure, a total of 420 farmers (210 for integrated farming and 210 for mixed farming) were selected from seven study areas of six districts on the basis of having intervention from different NARS institutes and without having any intervention from any organization. Descriptive statistics like sum, average, percentage, etc. were derived and calculated for analyzing the socioeconomic data. Propensity score matching (PSM) were applied with Kernel matching and Radius matching methods to evaluate the impact of integrated farming on farmers’ employment creation and income generation. The highest employment duration for male was 152.5 man-days/year for the farming system C-L-P-F-H under integrated farms and for mixed farms, it was 104.5 man-days/year. The average total income of the integrated farms was Tk. 124839 and for mixed farms, it was Tk. 99641. Average calorie intake of food secure households was 2927.83 kcal and 2839.14 kcal for integrated farming and mixed farming which is higher than the national average calorie intake (i.e., 2122 kcal). To assess the livelihood pattern through asset pentagon approach, noteworthy improvement was found based on different capitals of farm households practicing integrated farming in comparison to mixed farming. Finally, based on different problems, a constraint facing index was calculated in order to suggest policy recommendations.SAARC J. Agri., 13(2): 61-79 (2015)

The need for community inclusion in water basin governance in Bangladesh

In this paper we focus on the principle of community inclusion in water and ecological resource governance and document the negative impacts of its absence, in Chapra village, Bangladesh, on sustainable development and livelihood security. This community depends heavily on common property resources such as wild plant foods, fish and ‘natural’ crop fertilizers derived from river siltation and other sources. For the vast majority of people in Chapra, these common ecological resources create the ability to effectively match livelihood strategies to the conditions of both dry and rainy seasons. However, this socioecological livelihood pattern is increasingly undermined by the hydropolitics and top–down water management practices that prevail throughout the Ganges–Brahmaputra Basin in Bangladesh. These practices lead to ecosystem failures and ecological resource degradation which in turn cause survival challenges for the marginalized people who constitute the vast majority of the population. In this paper we explicitly seek to answer the question: how might community inclusion in governance processes help protect ecological integrity and common property resources and thereby support an alternative and more sustainable form of development for the region? In order to answer this question we first document the nature of livelihood practices in Chapra, based on 1 year of fieldwork, and then outline the mismatch that now occurs between livelihood practices, ecological characteristics and governance practices. We conclude with the argument that greater community inclusion in governance must be part of the solution to existing problems and we propose specific governance reform measures to facilitate community inclusion.

Agricultural change at the margins: adaptation and intensification in a Kenyan dryland

ABSTRACTLand-use and livelihood patterns among Eastern African pastoralists have undergone dramatic change in recent decades. The dynamics in East Pokot effectively illustrate these changes. We focus on the spread and intensification of honey production and crop cultivation, describing the patterns of adaptation and diffusion and the current techniques of production. These processes must be understood as dynamics of agricultural intensification, and not as forms of diversification, because current transformations in pastoral communities go beyond temporal strategies of risk avoidance. In the case of East Pokot, intensification is related to population growth, albeit not in the linear manner proposed by Boserup. Rather, this relation is mediated by variables that include markets, labour, technology and the micro-conditions of the agro-ecological environment.

Microfinance Targeting Tribals: Financial Performance and Outreach in Odisha

India is home of Tribes. The livelihood pattern, simple living, attachment towards nature and land reflects its rich tradition and culture. Though, the tribal population is an integral part of Indian society and culture but as the matter of social integrity, the situation is very different. Even after implementation of several developmental programmes, the tribal failed to gained similar status in Indian society. The exploitation on the part of higher social class and the peoples from plain areas has created barrier in their development. Moreover, the corruption on part of government functionaries and exploitation on part of industrialist has created tension within their territory. The tribals are the best entrepreneurs, as they utilize the available natural resources in efficient manner to satisfy their needs. This paper tries to highlight the effectiveness and performance of WSHG programme in tribal and Non Tribal districts of Odisha with the special concentration on the models of development, expansion, saving and credit growth. Efforts are made to highlight the inter linkage effect and impact of several promoting factors on growth of programme and credit on state.