Solar Sail Research Articles

BLISS: Interplanetary exploration with swarms of low-cost spacecraft

Leveraging advancements in micro-scale technology, we propose a fleet of autonomous, low-cost, small solar sails for interplanetary exploration. The Berkeley Low-cost Interplanetary Solar Sail (BLISS) project aims to utilize small-scale technologies to create a fleet of tiny interplanetary spacecraft for rapid, low-cost exploration of the inner solar system. This paper describes the hardware required to build a ∼10 g spacecraft using a 1 m2 solar sail steered by micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) inchworm actuators. The trajectory control to a NEO, here 101955 Bennu, is detailed along with the low-level actuation control of the solar sail and the specifications of proposed onboard communication and computation. Two other applications are also shortly considered: sample return from dozens of Jupiter-family comets and cometary nuclei imaging. The paper concludes by discussing the fundamental scaling limits and future directions for steerable autonomous miniature solar sails with onboard custom computers and sensors.

Acquisition and integration of differential pressure measurements on sails for boat performances improvement

In this paper, we integrated within a specifically developed acquisition system, denoted as Oceanus, the measurements from a differential pressure sensor between the two sides of a sail (windward and leeward sides); experiments have been performed using a light jib sail of a 35 feet cruising-racing yacht. We analyzed the correlation between such a signal and other standard signals usually present on board such as boat speed, intensity and direction of apparent or real wind; moreover, data from Inertial Measurement Units are handled. We also considered the Target Data, which depend on the actual point of sail, and the discrepancy between measured data and the predicted Targets is monitored as an error in terms of the true wind angle and boat velocity. In this way, the trimmer/helmsman can monitor the differential sail pressure together with Target data and decide to reduce the error with a correction in how sails are trimmed, rather than in how the boat is steered to achieve an improvement of boat performances. The resulting telemetry system represents an effective low cost solution, which is affordable even for amateur yachtsmen.

An Initial Investigation of Students’ Understanding of Space Exploration

The topic of space exploration receives little attention in most introductory astronomy courses. However, students come to such courses with both an interest and ideas informed by popular media–ideas that may or may not be consistent with scientific and engineering outlooks. This study explored what students recall about space exploration ideas after engaging with two short, in-class activities on the possibility of travel to Mars and the use of solar sails for exploration. We asked four open-ended questions for extra credit and coded students’ responses ($N$ = 106 to 150) for themes. Coding demonstrated that students had reasonable, if limited, understanding of factors influencing both crewed and uncrewed mission types as well as risks to crews after completing these activities.

Ground testing of Al-polyurethane shape memory polymer sail material under pulsed light exposure

This article presents a study on design and testing of space sails using Al-polyurethane Shape memory polymer. The properties of the polymer are simulated and tested in the design phase, and the results are compared with the fabricated sail, which is considered nominal. The efficiency of the polyurethane sail is found to be approximately 86.5%. The controllability of the sail is enhanced using a heating system that uses light rays to heat the polymer at specific control spots. The relative deflection at these spots causes a deviation in solar momentum, resulting in a controlled displacement of the sail. This control system is found to be 42% more efficient than conventional vane-type deflection systems. The paper also presents the fabrication of a ground testing apparatus designed to test the sail specimen in laboratory conditions. The apparatus is capable of producing a vacuum chamber pressure up to −400 mm/Hg and includes a magnetic levitation platform with strong permanent magnets to neglect local gravitational effects. The platform provides support for fixing the solar sail frame made from carbon fiber composite material. The testing apparatus consists of a 1000-W halogen light source with intensity ranges of approximately 200,000 lux. Sail material with a reflective surface is exposed to controlled luminance under vacuum conditions to measure the deflection of the sail. Deflection values are recorded by means of a resistance type strain gauge and strain indicator arrangement. Plotting deflections with time period gives the acceleration of the sail inside the test apparatus. A coolant chamber with a ceramic base is also provided to reduce temperature effects inside the vacuum chamber. In conclusion, this study presents a promising approach for the design and testing of solar sails using shape memory polymer and a ground testing apparatus. The results of this research can contribute to the development of more efficient and versatile solar sail technology for fuel-free aerospace propulsion.

An efficient multi-objective optimization framework for thin-walled tubular deployable composite boom

As a crucial structural component in space applications such as solar sails and solar arrays, the thin-walled tubular deployable composite booms (DCBs) demonstrate extensive utilization by employing stored elastic strain energy to achieve folding and deploying functions. This paper introduces a multi-objective optimization framework that integrates an analytical model with a genetic algorithm. By utilizing a multi-objective evolutionary algorithm based on de-composition (MOEA/D), the optimization objectives of minimizing folding moment and maximizing bending stiffness are pursued. Multiple constraints associated with failure avoidance, laminate stacking sequence design principles, and the folding moment range of actuator in the folding mechanism are considered in the optimization. The multi-objective optimization design of the tubular DCBs is performed to obtain the optimal combinations of cross-sectional radius, central angle, and ply scheme. Experimental validation confirms the efficacy of the optimization results. Additionally, an in-depth analysis on the influence of genetic algorithm types, hyperparameters, and different design variables on the optimization outcomes is thoroughly discussed. The findings of this study offer significantly insights for the practical engineering applications of tubular DCBs.

Breakthrough Sun Diving: The Rectilinear Option

A near-term possibility for utilization of Breakthrough Initiatives Project Starshot technology is application of the sun diving maneuver as a replacement for laser acceleration of highly miniaturized photon sails to interstellar velocities. This possibility was discussed during the June 2022 Breakthrough Discuss meeting in Santa Cruz California. Here, we consider application of statite-type photon sail probes to achieve rectilinear trajectories to explore outer solar system and near-interstellar destinations. Statite-Type solar photon sails are sufficiently thin and reflective that solar radiation pressure force on the sail exactly balances the solar gravitational force. In such a force-free environment, the spacecraft exits the solar system at its pre-sail-deployment solar-orbital velocity. Here we consider departures from a circular 1 AU solar orbit, the perihelion of a 0.7-1 AU elliptical solar orbit and the perihelion of a 0.3-1 AU solar orbit. Possible outer-solar system destinations of possible interest to Breakthrough Initiatives extraterrestrial-life/artifact -search researchers include Europa, Titan, Enceladus, Methone, and Arrokoth. More distant possible objectives are ‘Oumuamua and the Sun’s inner gravitational focus. To achieve a rectilinear trajectory, the sail must be oriented normal to the Sun and spacecraft areal mass thickness is 1.46 × 10-3 kg/m2. Current sail technology is reviewed to determine whether it can achieve the required areal mass thickness.

Research on solar sail attitude maneuvering method based on adaptive sliding mode control

A solar sail is a spacecraft propulsion system that uses the pressure of light to push a spacecraft. It consists of a lightweight support structure that deploys a large area of flexible film. During attitude maneuvering in space, the solar sail will excite vibrations in the flexible support structure and film, which can affect the accuracy of the attitude control system. To address this issue, this article first establishes a rigid-flexible coupled dynamic model of the solar sail that includes attitude motion and flexible structure elastic vibrations. Then, based on an adaptive sliding mode control method, a solar sail attitude maneuvering method is proposed. Finally, a numerical simulation is conducted using a hexagonal-shaped solar sail as the object. The numerical simulation results show that the attitude maneuvering method has the performance of attitude tracking and attitude stabilization, can meet the requirements of large-angle attitude maneuvering for solar sail spacecraft, and has strong robustness to model parameter uncertainty.

Optimization of Solar-Sail Control When a Vehicle Moves along Cyclic Heliocentric Trajectories

This paper considers the problem of constructing time-optimal trajectories for a spacecraft (SC) with a solar sail. The trajectories under consideration consist of repeated cycles of spacecraft movement to the target heliocentric orbit and back to the initial one. A model of a perfectly reflecting sail is used, which allows using the programs for optimal control of the sail angle, obtained on the basis of the Pontryagin maximum principle. The heliocentric motion is modeled in a flat polar coordinate system, and the spacecraft itself makes cyclic flights between two terrestrial planets along a closed trajectory. A boundary-value problem is formulated, in the solution of which the approach of the spacecraft to the target planet with the equalization of velocities is ensured (the encounter problem). Simulations of four cycles of Earth–Mercury–Earth and Earth–Mars–Earth motion with a characteristic acceleration of the solar sail of 0.25 mm/s2 have been carried out, for which the duration of one cycle is on average 2000 and 2341 days, respectively. Optimal sail-orientation control programs are obtained for a wide range of launch dates, and methods of searching for and choosing the initial values of conjugate variables are shown. The obtained results demonstrate the ability of a spacecraft with a solar sail to implement controlled motion along closed trajectories with a minimum duration of individual Earth–destination planet–Earth flights.

Active Metasurfaces for Non‐Rigid Light Sail Interstellar Optical Communication

AbstractThe non‐rigidity of the nanophotonic metasail platform and the intense imparted optical force from the terrestrial laser source lead to deformations during the propulsion stage. These deformations must be taken into consideration due to their potential adverse impact on communication performance. Alterations in the shape of the sail body result in varying angles of incidence and polarization components observed by the photonic unit cell, significantly impacting their intended performance. Based on this premise, this paper proposes utilizing a reflective all‐dielectric, low‐power active metasurface that dynamically compensates for the effects of deformation and facilitates beam‐steering for communication purposes among different light sails in interstellar space. Configured as p‐n multi‐junction layers, the constituent elements of the metasurface enable modulation of carrier concentrations through multigate biasing. Through electrostatic simulations, it demonstrates that the required permittivity modulation of can achieve a wide phase span of 320°. Furthermore, it has investigated the effect of the presence of non‐functional portions in the far‐field radiation pattern of the light sail and highlighted the critical role of tunable elements in mitigating its impact. The obtained results hold great promise for realizing successful interstellar downlink communication between such gram‐scale nano‐crafts and Earth.

Sunflower mission concept for high-altitude earth observation in LEO via nanosatellite with pyramidal solar sail

Solar sails are an attractive technology for propellant-free propulsion, especially in small satellites with tight power and mass budgets. Several recent missions have shown promising applications of solar sails for nanosatellite orbital control in low Earth orbit (LEO). They enable easier access to and removal from high-altitude orbits. Since solar radiation pressure produces torques in addition to forces, a solar sail can also be used for low-power attitude control. Few missions have exploited this effect. In response, this paper proposes a new nanosatellite mission concept, only achievable by combined orbit-attitude control via solar sail: the sunflower mission, for high-altitude wide-area Earth observation. A realistic sail design meeting the mission requirements is obtained via parametric analysis and comprehensive review of past missions. A pyramid-shaped sail is proposed for the mission, and its advantages and drawbacks are analysed. The dynamics are evaluated using a high-fidelity numerical simulator with all relevant physical perturbations in LEO. The imaging objectives are successfully achieved over a multi-year duration. The sail also provides propellant-free orbit insertion from a low-altitude launch orbit, and fast de-orbit at end-of-life. It uses less power and has a smaller stowed size than several competitor technologies for orbit-attitude control of LEO nanosatellites.

Study of the deorbit sail damage under the combined effects of atomic oxygen erosion and material defects

In order to help control the spread of space debris and junk, deorbit sail devices have been used for deorbiting techniques; however, this approach is still considered risky due to potential failure or malfunction as it need to be exposed to the harsh space environment for a prolonged period of time, particularly in low-Earth orbit. China has made new strides forward in managing space junk, as it has successfully unfolded a 25-square-meter deorbit sail developed by the Shanghai Academy of Spacecraft Technology in-orbit for the payload capsule of a recently launched rocket. Accordingly in this paper, a full life-cycle modelling based on Monte Carlo method is developed to reveal the damage behavior of the 25-square-meter deorbit sail surface under the combined effects of atomic oxygen erosion and deorbit sail defects. The simulation results show that as the atomic oxygen fluence increases and the material defect width widens, the interaction effect of the two factors becomes more and more pronounced, which decisively influences the erosion rate of the sail surface. Morphological characterization of aluminized film PET material, activated silanisation modified material and plasma-polymerization coating material before and after atomic oxygen erosion combined defects is carried out and the atomic oxygen erosion of the deorbit sail surfaces is quantitatively assessed. The assessment results show that compared to the PET material and activation silanisation surface modification material, the plasma polymeric coated material showed much better flexibility, folding resistance and irradiation resistance to prevent geological fold and to shield from the atomic oxygen erosion in space. The atomic oxygen erosion combined defects assessment method studied in this paper provides valuable reference data for the subsequent serialisation of deorbit sail products and other typical lightweight film materials for space applications.

Solar sailing adaptive control using integral concurrent learning for solar flux estimation

In the interest of exploiting natural forces for propellant-less spacecraft missions, this investigation proposes an adaptive control strategy to account for unknown parameters in the dynamic modeling of a reflectivity-controlled solar sail spacecraft. A Lyapunov-based control law along with integral concurrent learning is suggested to accomplish and prove global exponential tracking of the estimated parameters and states of interest, without satisfying the common persistence of excitation condition, which in most nonlinear systems cannot be guaranteed a priori. This involves estimating the solar flux or irradiance from the Sun to account for uncertainty and variation over time in this value. To illustrate potential applications, two missions are considered: (1) a geostationary debris removal case and (2) an Earth–Mars interplanetary transfer orbit following a logarithmic spiral reference trajectory. The proposed formulation demonstrates the benefit of estimating the solar flux using integral concurrent learning. The results are compared to trajectories with no estimation to illustrate the need to account for the actual solar flux.

Circular Orbit Flip Trajectories Generated by E-Sail

An Electric Solar Wind Sail (E-sail) is a propellantless propulsion concept that extracts momentum from the high-speed solar wind stream to generate thrust. This paper investigates the performance of such a propulsion system in obtaining the transition from a prograde to a retrograde motion. The spacecraft is assumed to initially trace a circular heliocentric orbit of given radius. This particular trajectory, referred to as Circular Orbit Flip Trajectory (COFT), is analyzed in a two-dimensional mission scenario, by exploiting the capability of a medium-high performance E-sail to change the spacecraft angular momentum vector during its motion in the interplanetary space. More precisely, the paper describes a procedure to evaluate the E-sail optimal performance in a set of COFTs, by calculating their minimum flight times as a function of the sail reference propulsive acceleration. It is shown that a two-dimensional COFT can be generated by means of a simple steering law in which the E-sail nominal plane has a nearly fixed attitude with respect to an orbital reference system, for most of the time interval of the interplanetary transfer.

Thrust model and guidance scheme for single-tether E-sail with constant attitude

In its typical arrangement, an Electric Solar Wind Sail (or E-sail) consists of a grid of long tethers charged by means of a high-voltage source that creates an electrostatic sheath, while an electron emitter is used to remove trapped electrons. Such a grid of conducting tethers enables the generation of a thrust by deviating the charged particles coming from the Sun with which it interacts electrostatically. However, the difficulty of deploying and maintaining stretched such large structures has been leading the scientific community to consider simpler configurations, such as the one in which the E-sail consists of a single spinning tether. This Short Communication fits into this context, by first describing the thrust and torque vectors of a single-tether E-sail. A drawback of the single-tether arrangement is that it is more difficult to maneuver than a multi-tether configuration, because a modulation of the electric voltage, which is one possible means of controlling the attitude of a multi-tether E-sail, would not enable the generation of any control torque. For this reason, this work also proposes a guidance scheme for orbit raising or lowering scenarios, in which the tether is alternately charged and discharged while the inertial direction of the spacecraft spin axis always remains unchanged.

Sample return system of OKEANOS—The solar power sail for Jupiter Trojan exploration

The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency had planned a sample return from the Jupiter Trojans using a solar power sail in its Oversize Kite-craft for Exploration and AstroNautics in the Outer Solar system (OKEANOS) mission. Solar power sail is an extended concept of solar sail consisting of a sail membrane covered with flexible solar arrays. OKEANOS is capable of generating a large amount of power sufficient to drive high-specific-impulse ion engines in the outer solar system, thus making it possible to perform sample return from the Jupiter Trojans. Various innovative technologies are needed to realize such a challenging mission in the distant space. Specifically, OKEANOS deploys a small lander to ensure the safety and save propellant of the mother spacecraft. The lander collects samples of the asteroid, and separates them into different groups, namely, those for in-situ analysis and those for return. After completing the in-situ analysis, the lander lifts off the asteroid, docks with the mother spacecraft, and delivers the samples to the reentry capsule mounted on the mother spacecraft. The reentry capsule is designed so that it can manage the reentry speed of 15 km/s. Although OKEANOS was proposed as a Japanese large-class mission and advanced to the final selection, it was not selected because of a cost issue. However, its sample return concept is inherited by small- and massive-body explorations coming in the next generations. In this paper, we report the state-of-the-art technologies that enable sample returns from the outer solar system, which were developed through the OKEANOS mission study.

A Maneuver of Escape from the Vicinity of a Collinear Libration Point Using Light Pressure Forces

The orbital motion of a spacecraft with a solar sail in the vicinity of the Sun–Earth collinear libration point is studied. The study is carried out within the Hill approximation of the circular restricted three-body problem. The collinear libration point is unstable, but instability can be a positive factor in the tasks of maneuvering in interplanetary space. This is because a small change in velocity near an unstable libration point can lead to a significant change in orbital motion. This property can be used in the development of projects to counteract the comet–asteroid hazard. A scheme for constructing the trajectories of interception of a spacecraft with a potentially hazardous object is proposed. One of the stages of this scheme, an optimal escape from the vicinity of the libration point using light pressure forces, is considered. The results of numerical simulations are presented.

Optimal deep-space heliocentric transfers with an electric sail and an electric thruster

An electric solar wind sail is a propellantless propulsive system that generates thrust by exploiting the electrostatic interaction between solar wind ions and one or more charged tethers. Assuming a realistic near-term design in which the sail is composed of a limited number of tethers, the propulsive acceleration provided to the spacecraft is small. Moreover, according to a recent thrust model, the propulsive acceleration vector is constrained to lie in a cone centered on the outward radial direction with half-angle equal to about 20 degrees, resulting in a small circumferential component of the propulsive acceleration. In order to overcome these issues, a possible strategy consists in combining the electric sail with an electric thruster that provides a low thrust steerable around the circumferential direction. The effectiveness of such a combination is thoroughly analyzed in this work for deep-space heliocentric transfers. Transfer trajectories are obtained as outputs of a multi-objective optimization procedure, in which a suitable linear function of the flight time and the propellant consumption is minimized, considering different relative weights of the two competing requirements. Two exemplary case studies, consisting of Earth-Mars and Earth-Venus ephemeris-free circle-to-circle transfers, are presented to show the effectiveness of the proposed arrangement.

Light-Propelled Super-Hydrophobic Sponge Motor and its Application in Oil-Water Separation.

Self-propelled separation materials, that is, motor, are one of the keys to realizing smart oil-water separation. Although three-dimensional sponges such as commercial melamine sponge (MS) exhibit excellent oil-water separation ability, they cannot move by themselves on water. Aiming at solving this problem, a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) and molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) modified MS motor (PDMS@MS/MoS2) with an asymmetric multilayer structure was prepared, in which the photothermal layer MoS2 provided the propelling force for the motor under infrared light irradiation, and the middle layer PDMS was used as the superhydrophobic modified agent and adhesive agent between commercial MS and MoS2 powder. PDMS coated MS (PDMS@MS) as the superhydrophobic layer showed good superhydrophobic ability (153.1°) and oil-water separation capacity (52.33 g/g to liquid paraffin). Furthermore, the introduction of MoS2 made the speed of the sponge motor reach 8.27 mm s-1 with a removal quantity of 12.20 g/g for cyclohexane. After recycling 8 times, the contact angle, cyclohexane capturing amount, and average velocity of the motor were 150.3°, 11.40 g/g, and 8.41 mm/s, respectively. Meanwhile, PDMS@MS/MoS2 kept a similar light-propelling velocity (∼8 mm) at different pH values and in simulated seawater, demonstrating that the light-propelling motor possessed a good cycle and practical performance, which provides a possibility for the directional light propulsion of a sponge motor in oil-water separation.

Solar Sail Transfer Trajectory Design for Comet 29P/Schwassmann–Wachmann 1 Rendezvous

The goal of this paper is to analyze the optimal transfer towards the periodic comet 29P/Schwassmann–Wachmann 1 of a solar sail-based spacecraft. This periodic and active comet is an interesting and still unexplored small body that has been regarded as an object of the Centaurs group. In this work, a classical (heliocentric) orbit-to-orbit transfer is studied from an optimal viewpoint, by finding the spacecraft trajectories that minimize the flight time for a given value of the solar sail characteristic acceleration, that is, the typical performance parameter of a photonic sail. In particular, the optimal Earth–comet transfer is studied both in a typical three-dimensional mission scenario and with a simplified two-dimensional approach, whose aim is to rapidly obtain an accurate estimation of the minimum flight time with a reduced computation cost. The numerical simulations illustrate the mission performance, in terms of the characteristics of the rapid transfer trajectory, as a function of the typical propulsive parameter and the solar sail thrust model.

Quantum Inspired Broadband Photonic Absorber: Potential Application as Solar Sail along with Mobility Analysis

Electromagnetic wideband absorption is still perceived as a critical and formidable challenge to address with an unambiguous photonic absorber. Subwavelength metamaterial (MM) unit cells with unique and controlled features have recently gained considerable interest. However, meta‐atoms, generated using a quantum‐inspired pattern distribution, are underwhelming in existing literature to design photonic absorbers and their potential application to manufacture solar sails is still quite uncommon. In this article, to create a flexible, polarization‐insensitive, ultrathin, and broadband MM absorber, quantum interference pattern‐inspired design is utilized. Herein, a novel approach to fabricating solar sails for the space exploration incorporates the proposed broadband photonic absorber rather than conventional reflectors. The quantum‐inspired meta‐absorber (QIMA) exhibits an absorption of over 91% for the visible domain, i.e., 380–800 nm under a conventional plane‐polarized source. It is shown in the study that broadband absorbers are almost equivalent to excellent reflectors to design the solar sails in terms of the time‐averaged force calculated by utilizing the Maxwell stress tensor method. Thus, the QIMA has the potential to be a viable alternative to reflectors in the design of futuristic solar sails for space exploration. The interference theory model is also utilized to assure the dependability of calculated data, and additionally, the standard AM1.5 solar spectrum is utilized to demonstrate the QIMA's solar‐harvesting potentiality.