Food Consumption Levels Research Articles

Forecasting trends in food security with real time data

Early warning systems are an essential tool for effective humanitarian action. Advance warnings on impending disasters facilitate timely and targeted response which help save lives and livelihoods. In this work we present a quantitative methodology to forecast levels of food consumption for 60 consecutive days, at the sub-national level, in four countries: Mali, Nigeria, Syria, and Yemen. The methodology is built on publicly available data from the World Food Programme’s global hunger monitoring system which collects, processes, and displays daily updates on key food security metrics, conflict, weather events, and other drivers of food insecurity. In this study we assessed the performance of various models including Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA), Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost), Long Short Term Memory (LSTM) Network, Convolutional Neural Network (CNN), and Reservoir Computing (RC), by comparing their Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE) metrics. Our findings highlight Reservoir Computing as a particularly well-suited model in the field of food security given both its notable resistance to over-fitting on limited data samples and its efficient training capabilities. The methodology we introduce establishes the groundwork for a global, data-driven early warning system designed to anticipate and detect food insecurity.

Ultra-processed foods and type 2 diabetes mellitus incidence in RaNCD project: a prospective cohort study.

Following rapid population growth and urbanization, global ultra-processed food consumption levels have increased. Additionally, type 2 diabetes mellitus, a non-communicable disease, is affecting one-tenth of the people worldwide. In this study, we aimed to investigate the association between ultra-processed food consumption and the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus in different scenarios in a prospective cohort study in the western part of Iran. The RaNCD cohort includes 10,047 participants aged 35 to 65; we included participants susceptible to diabetes at enrolment with follow-up data. We used the widely accepted Nova classification to define ultra-processed foods. A multivariable Cox proportional hazards regression model was used as the main model; furthermore, the Cox model with different adjustments and the logistic regression model were used as sensitive analysis to evaluate the association between ultra-processed foods consumption and type 2 diabetes mellitus. A total of 8827 participants with a mean age of 46.92y, a mean follow-up time of 7.1y, and a mean daily ultra-processed food intake of 87.69g were included. During the follow-up phases, we included 255 incidences of type 2 diabetes mellitus cases. After adjusting for confounders in the primary model, including age, gender, residence type, socioeconomic status, physical activity, body mass index, and familial history of diabetes despite the elevated hazard ratio of 1.08 (0.75, 1.55) in the fourth quartile compared to the first quartile, the P-value was insignificant (p-value = 0.665); p for trend in the UPF quartiles was also insignificant. Our study has shed light on the association between ultra-processed food consumption and the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus. However, further investigations are necessary to confirm or refute the UPFs/T2DM association.

Food consumption in East Kazakhstan region - focus on stability of indicators

Consumption of food products by the population is an important indicator of food security, as this concept includes not only food independence, but also the availability of food products. The aim is to assess the relationship between economic indicators and sustainable development of agro-industrial complex in East Kazakhstan for 2012-2023, with emphasis on the impact of the existing conditions and factors on food consumption patterns. Methods include econometric modeling, statistical estimation, data synthesis and regression analysis to study the obtained data, identify patterns and summarize suggestions and recommendations. Innovative econometric techniques supported by Eviews 12.0 software allow the interaction between different variables to be quantified with precision. Results show that growth in gross regional product per capita is correlated with improvements in dietary diversity and nutritional quality, increasing food security. The authors note that fluctuations in agricultural production significantly affect food availability and prices. An analysis of the level of food utilization is presented, which makes it possible to determine the state and prospects for the development of key branches of the agricultural sector of the region and the achievement of import substitution policy. The negative point is the problem of economic availability of food products in the region in the necessary volumes and assortment for residents with low incomes, which is caused by the growth of inflation and the decline in real money. It is shown that economic parameters explain about 95% of the variability in food consumption. The subsistence minimum plays an important role in food consumption. Its growth leads to an increase in food expenditures, which in turn affects the overall level of food consumption. Regular adjustments to social standards are needed. Conclusions - the possibilities of food stability in the country depend on the demand trends in the food market. There is a direct correlation between the productivity of agricultural production and the structure of consumer demand for food products. The state policy in the sphere of food consumption and provision of the population with food should include mechanisms to reduce income differences, stabilize prices, focus on balanced nutrition, and a comprehensive approach to forecasting consumer preferences.

Taraxacum Mongolicum Polysaccharides Reverses Mice Obesity via Activation of AKT/mTOR Pathway

Background/Objectives: The global prevalence of obesity and its associated health complications represent significant public health concerns. Plant polysaccharides have been demonstrated to possess a range of beneficial pharmacological effects. This experiment was designed to elucidate the mechanisms of dietary Taraxacum mongolicum polysaccharides involved in the regulation of obesity and fat browning. Methods: Male C57BL/6J mice were randomly divided into three groups: a control group, a high-fat diet (HFD) group, and an HFD group supplemented with 0.3% TMPs. The mice were fed their respective diets for 10 weeks, after which their body weight, food consumption, and serum lipid levels were measured. Histological analysis was performed to assess lipid deposition in adipose tissue and liver. Western blot was used to assess the expression of proteins involved in the AKT/mTOR pathway. Results: The results show that compared with the HFD group, the TMP supplementation group’s body-weight gain (12.17 ± 1.77) significantly decreased. TMPs also reduced serum levels of total cholesterol, triglycerides, and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol. Histological analysis showed that TMPs reduced lipid deposition in both adipose tissue and the liver. Conclusions: In addition, TMPs increased the expression of phosphorylated AKT and the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR), indicating that TMPs exert their beneficial effects on lipid metabolism via the AKT/mTOR pathway.

Carlos Augusto Monteiro: nutrition and obesity.

Carlos Monteiro talks to Gary Humphreys about Brazil's dietary transition and the need for substantial change at every level of food production, marketing and consumption to address the global obesity pandemic.

Ultra-processed food consumption in UK adolescents: distribution, trends, and sociodemographic correlates using the National Diet and Nutrition Survey 2008/09 to 2018/19

PurposeWe quantified levels of ultra-processed food (UPF) consumption and investigated consumption patterns in a representative sample of UK adolescents.MethodsWe used data from 4-day food diaries from adolescents in the UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey (NDNS) (2008/09–2018/19). UPF were identified using the NOVA classification. We estimated the percentage of Total Energy Intake (%TEI) and the absolute weight (grams). Linear regression models quantified differences in UPF consumption across survey years and its association with participant’s individual characteristics. This was an analysis of the repeated cross-sectional data from the UK NDNS Rolling Programme waves 1–11 (2008/09–2018/19). A total of 2991 adolescents (11–18y) with complete information on dietary intake were included.ResultsMean UPF consumption was 861 (SD 442) g/d and this accounted for 65.9% (SD 13.4%) of TEI. Between 2008 and 2019, mean UPF consumption decreased from 996 to 776 g/d [ – 211 (95%CI – 302; – 120)] and from 67.7% to 62.8% of TEI [ – 4.8% (95%CI – 8.1; – 1.5)]. Higher %TEI was consumed by adolescents with lower socioeconomic status; white ethnicity and living in England North. A higher weight of UPF consumption (g/d) was associated with being male, white, age 18y, having parents with routine or manual occupation, living in England North, and living with obesity.ConclusionAverage energy intake from UPF has decreased over a decade in UK adolescents. We observed a social and regional patterning of UPF consumption, with higher consumption among adolescents from lower socioeconomic backgrounds, from a white ethnicity and living in England North. Our findings suggest inequalities associated with UPF intake and factors that might lie beyond individual choice.

Disruption of the peripheral biological clock may play a role in sleep deprivation-induced dysregulation of lipid metabolism in both the daytime and nighttime phases

Study objectivesThis study aimed to examine the effect of sleep deprivation (SD) on lipid metabolism or lipid metabolism regulation in the liver and white adipose tissue (WAT) during the light and dark phases and explored the possible mechanisms underlying the diurnal effect of SD on lipid metabolism associated with clock genes. MethodsMale C57BL/6J mice aged 2 months were deprived of sleep daily for 20 h for ten consecutive days with weakly forced locomotion. The body weights and food consumption levels of the SD and control mice were recorded, and the mice were then sacrificed at ZT (zeitgeber time) 2 and ZT 14. The peripheral clock genes, enzymes involved in fat synthesis and catabolism in the WAT, and melatonin signalling pathway-mediated lipid metabolism in the liver were assessed. Untargeted metabolomics and tandem mass tag (TMT) proteomics were used to identify differential lipid metabolism pathways in the liver. ResultsBodyweight gain and daily food consumption were dramatically elevated after SD. Profound disruptions in the diurnal regulation of the hepatic peripheral clock and enzymes involved in fat synthesis and catabolism in the WAT were observed, with a strong emphasis on hepatic lipid metabolic pathways, while melatonin signalling pathway-mediated lipid metabolism exhibited moderate changes. ConclusionsIn mice, ten consecutive days of SD increased body weight gain and daily food consumption. In addition, SD profoundly disrupted lipid metabolism in the WAT and liver during the light and dark periods. These diurnal changes may be related to disorders of the peripheral biological clock.

Stable Isotope Variation in East and Southeast Asian Marine Ecosystems and its Relevance for Archaeological Analysis

ABSTRACT This paper delves into the utilisation of stable isotope analysis as a tool for understanding ancient human adaptations to diverse marine environments, with a specific geographical focus on Southeast Asia and the Pacific. It analyzes stable isotope data from modern fish bones and tooth enamel, focusing on δ13C, δ15N, and δ18O values. The data confirm the reliability of δ13C as a proxy for marine consumption in archaeological contexts and emphasises the potential of combining δ13C and δ15N measurements to reconstruct marine food consumption and trophic level. This, in turn, helps us gain insights into ancient marine consumption and ecosystems in Southeast Asia. While distinctions between marine niches are not clear, δ15N shows potential for distinguishing feeding behaviours among fish species. The data also suggests geographical and ecological variations in stable isotope values, highlighting the need for locally-based baseline datasets in archaeological studies of marine subsistence strategies.

P2X7R and P2X4R expression of mice submandibular gland in high-fat diet/streptozotocin-induced type 2 diabetes

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a chronic inflammatory disease that can compromise the functioning of various organs, including the salivary glands (SG). The purinergic system is one of the most important inflammatory pathways in T2DM condition, and P2X7R and P2X4R are the primary purinergic receptors in SG that regulate inflammatory homeostasis. This study aimed to evaluate P2X7R and P2X4R expression, and morphological changes in the submandibular gland (SMG) in T2DM. Twenty-four 5-week-old mice were randomly assigned to control (CON) and diabetes mellitus (DM) groups (n = 12 each). Body weight, diet, and blood glucose levels were monitored weekly. The histomorphology of the SMG and the expression of the P2X7R, and P2X7R was evaluated by immunohistochemistry (IHC) staining and reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) at 11 and 13 weeks of age. Our findings indicate a significant increase in food consumption, body weight, and blood glucose levels in the DM group. Although a significant increase in P2X7R and P2X4R expression was observed in the DM groups, the receptor location remained unchanged. We also observed a significant increase in the acinar area in the DM13w group, and a significant decrease in the ductal area in the DM11w and DM13w groups. Targeting purinergic receptors may offer novel therapeutic methods for diabetic complications.

Participation of farmers in market value chains: A tailored Antràs and Chor positioning indicator

This study presents a micro-level indicator of farmers’ positioning in the market chain, based on the conceptual framework outlined by Antràs and Chor (2013, 2018). The indicator considers the selling location of a farming household and its crop buyers. Using panel data from the World Bank’s ‘Living Standards Measurement Study: Integrated Surveys on Agriculture’ for Ethiopia and Nigeria, this paper applies the proposed indicator empirically and showcases its superior performance in comparison to existing alternatives at the micro-level. Furthermore, by analyzing the dynamics of farmers’ food and total consumption over time and controlling for various household and production characteristics, as well as potential confounding factors, this study shows that moving towards a downstream position in the market chain has a positive impact on farmers’ food and total consumption levels. The results are validated through sensitivity analysis and robustness checks.

Exploring the influence of user-friendly cutlery on the food consumption levels

Thirty-five participants completed the study. Two ad libitum food intake sessions were conducted, one using conventional chopsticks (Normal) and the other with user-friendly chopsticks supported by an adapter (Supported). All participants reported that Supported chopsticks were easier to use compared to the Normal ones. The results revealed a statistically significant 22.5% reduction in the volume of food consumed in a single bite with Supported chopsticks compared to Normal chopsticks (p < 0.05). Furthermore, a significant 12.0% decrease in the overall volume of food intake was observed when using Supported chopsticks compared to the Normal chopsticks (p < 0.05). These findings suggest that the easy of using cutlery can induce influence both bite size and overall food intake.

23 AHA’s Essential Eight: Opportunities for Preventive Care among Adults with Peripheral Arterial Disease

OBJECTIVES/GOALS: The objective was to examine the American Heart Association’s (AHA) Essential Eight metrics of cardiovascular (CV) health among Black and White adults with peripheral arterial disease (PAD) collected via validated surveys and medical records. Each metric was examined in association with available social determinants of health (SDoH) factors. METHODS/STUDY POPULATION: This observational study completed data collection through surveys and medical record review. Validated surveys were used to collect Essential Eight metrics of diet, physical activity, sleep, and smoking status. Medical records were used to collect data on body mass index, blood lipids, blood glucose, and blood pressure. Participants with a diagnosis of lower extremity PAD, ability to complete surveys, and provided informed written consent were eligible. Equal numbers of Black and White participants were enrolled. Essential Eight metrics were used to calculate CV health scores for each participant. Scores were examined for association with SDoH factors and by race using Student’s T-test or ANOVA for continuous variables or Chi-Square tests for categorical variables. RESULTS/ANTICIPATED RESULTS: A total of 50 participants will be enrolled, with the expected majority being men and half self-reporting as Black individuals. Worse SDoH is expected to be associated with lower CV health metrics, including lower levels of physical activity and higher levels of saturated fatty food consumption. Higher levels of blood lipids, blood glucose, and blood pressure are expected to be associated with worse SDoH factors. We expect this association to be attenuated by rates of CV medications, such as statin therapy, antiglycemic medications, and antihypertensive medications. No effect modification by rurality is expected, although our projected sample size is small and may impact the ability to examine this interaction. DISCUSSION/SIGNIFICANCE: Black Americans, particularly in the Deep South, are at elevated risk for PAD and critical limb ischemic events, such as amputation. Understanding CV health metrics and SDoH characteristics among adults with PAD is essential to reduce disparities in care and provide valuable information for those at highest risk for complications.

Protective Effect of Pemafibrate Treatment against Diabetic Retinopathy in Spontaneously Diabetic Torii Fatty Rats.

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) can cause visual impairment and blindness, and the increasing global prevalence of diabetes underscores the need for effective therapies to prevent and treat DR. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the protective effect of pemafibrate treatment against DR, using a Spontaneously Diabetic Torii (SDT) fatty rat model of obese type 2 diabetes. SDT fatty rats were fed either a diet supplemented with pemafibrate (0.3 mg/kg/day) for 16 weeks, starting at 8 weeks of age (Pf SDT fatty: study group), or normal chow (SDT fatty: controls). Normal chow was provided to Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats (SD: normal controls). Electroretinography (ERG) was performed at 8 and 24 weeks of age to evaluate the retinal neural function. After sacrifice, retinal thickness, number of retinal folds, and choroidal thickness were evaluated, and immunostaining was performed for aquaporin-4 (AQP4). No significant differences were noted in food consumption, body weight, or blood glucose level after pemafibrate administration. Triglyceride levels were reduced, and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels were increased. Extension of oscillatory potential (OP)1 and OP3 waves on ERG was suppressed in the Pf SDT fatty group. Retinal thickness at 1,500 microns from the optic disc improved in the Pf SDT fatty group. No significant improvements were noted in choroidal thickness or number of retinal folds. Quantitative analyses showed that AQP4-positive regions in the retinas were significantly larger in the Pf SDT fatty group than in the SDT fatty group. The findings suggest that pemafibrate treatment can exert protective effects against DR.

Colony level fitness analysis identifies a trade-off between population growth rate and dauer yield in Caenorhabditis elegans

BackgroundIn the evolution from unicellular to multicellular life forms, natural selection favored reduced cell proliferation and even programmed cell death if this increased organismal fitness. Could reduced individual fertility or even programmed organismal death similarly increase the fitness of colonies of closely-related metazoan organisms? This possibility is at least consistent with evolutionary theory, and has been supported by computer modelling. Caenorhabditis elegans has a boom and bust life history, where populations of nematodes that are sometimes near clonal subsist on and consume food patches, and then generate dauer larva dispersal propagules. A recent study of an in silico model of C. elegans predicted that one determinant of colony fitness (measured as dauer yield) is minimization of futile food consumption (i.e. that which does not contribute to dauer yield). One way to achieve this is to optimize colony population structure by adjustment of individual fertility.ResultsHere we describe development of a C. elegans colony fitness assay, and its use to investigate the effect of altering population structure on colony fitness after population bust. Fitness metrics measured were speed of dauer production, and dauer yield, an indirect measure of efficiency of resource utilization (i.e. conversion of food into dauers). We find that with increasing founder number, speed of dauer production increases (due to earlier bust) but dauer yield rises and falls. In addition, some dauer recovery was detected soon after the post-colony bust peak of dauer yield, suggesting possible bet hedging among dauers.ConclusionsThese results suggest the presence of a fitness trade-off at colony level between speed and efficiency of resource utilization in C. elegans. They also provide indirect evidence that population structure is a determinant of colony level fitness, potentially by affecting level of futile food consumption.

Анализ современного состояния продовольственной безопасности региона

The article discusses the prerequisites for the formation of food security in the region – Lugansk People’s Republic. An analysis of the current state of food security in the region and a factor analysis of the level of food consumption by the population was carried out, the results of which made it possible to establish the discrepancy between the production volumes of the main types of agricultural and food products and the rational norms of food consumption, both of crop and livestock origin. It is proved that the predominant negative impact on the level of food consumption by the population is caused by the factor of insufficient production of basic types of agricultural products. Based on the results of the analysis of self-sufficiency, a discrepancy between the actual volumes of food production and consumption standards was revealed. A conclusion is drawn about the strategic importance and directions of development of the agricultural industry based on effective public policy.

Socio-economic and spatial inequalities in animal sources of iron-rich foods consumption among children 6-23 months old in Ethiopia: A decomposition analysis.

Iron deficiency anaemia is the most common type of anaemia in young children which can lead to long-term health consequences such as reduced immunity, impaired cognitive development, and school performance. As children experience rapid growth, they require a greater supply of iron from iron-rich foods to support their development. In addition to the low consumption of iron-rich foods in low- and lower-middle-income countries, there are also regional and socio-economic disparities. This study aimed to assess contributing factors of wealth-related inequality and geographic variations in animal sources of iron-rich food consumption among children aged 6-23 months in Ethiopia. We used data from the Ethiopian Mini Demographic and Health Surveys (EMDHS) 2019, a national survey conducted using stratified sampling techniques. A total of 1,461 children of age 6-23 months were included in the study. Iron-rich animal sources of food consumption were regarded when parents/caregivers reported that a child took at least one of the four food items identified as iron-rich food: 1) eggs, 2) meat (beef, lamb, goat, or chicken), 3) fresh or dried fish or shellfish, and 4) organs meat such as heart or liver. Concentration indices and curves were used to assess wealth-related inequalities. A Wagstaff decomposition analysis was applied to identify the contributing factors for wealth-related inequality of iron-rich animal source foods consumption. We estimated the elasticity of wealth-related inequality for a percentage change in socioeconomic variables. A spatial analysis was then used to map the significant cluster areas of iron-rich animal source food consumption among children in Ethiopia. The proportion of children who were given iron-rich animal-source foods in Ethiopia is 24.2% (95% CI: 22.1%, 26.5%), with figures ranging from 0.3% in Dire Dawa to 37.8% in the Oromia region. Children in poor households disproportionately consume less iron-rich animal-source foods than those in wealthy households, leading to a pro-rich wealth concentration index (C) = 0.25 (95% CI: 0.12, 0.37). The decomposition model explained approximately 70% of the estimated socio-economic inequality. About 21% of the wealth-related inequalities in iron-rich animal source food consumption in children can be explained by having primary or above education status of women. Mother's antenatal care (ANC) visits (14.6%), living in the large central and metropolitan regions (12%), household wealth index (10%), and being in the older age group (12-23 months) (2.4%) also contribute to the wealth-related inequalities. Regions such as Afar, Eastern parts of Amhara, and Somali were geographic clusters with low iron-rich animal source food consumption. There is a low level of iron-rich animal source food consumption among children, and it is disproportionately concentrated in the rich households (pro-rich distribution) in Ethiopia. Maternal educational status, having ANC visits, children being in the older age group (12-23 months), and living in large central and metropolitan regions were significant contributors to these wealth-related inequalities in iron-rich animal source foods consumption. Certain parts of Ethiopia such as, Afar, Eastern parts of Amhara, and Somali should be considered priority areas for nutritional interventions to increase children's iron-rich animal source foods consumption.

Results of modern radiation-hygienic surveys of settlements of Bryansk Oblast of the Russian Federation bordering the Republic of Belarus. Part 2: Population’s food preferences (diet)

This study presents results of radiation-hygienic surveys of the Bryansk Oblast settlements bordering the Republic of Belarus. The data were obtained in the course of implementation of measures of the “Program of joint activities of Russia and Belarus within the framework of the Union State for the protection of the population and rehabilitation of the territories affected by the Chernobyl NPP accident” in 2019–2022. The second part of the study presents structure of population’s food preferences (diet). A general description of the diets of residents is given and the main types of local food products at the present stage of the radiation accident are identified. The current levels of consumption of locally produced food (and products of local origin) by residents of different age categories have been assessed. The obtained results of assessing the levels of food consumption have been compared with our own results of earlier studies and with the results of studies on the population of Russia and Belarus. Similarly with previous years, among agricultural food products the most consumed products are milk and potatoes and among natural food products are mushrooms. The established levels of consumption of local dairy products and beef have decreased over the past ten years and the resident consumptions of mushrooms and potatoes are in the same levels as before.

Experimental Evaluation of the Pharmacological Safety of a New Propagandic Acid Derivative with a Cardiotropic Action

We present the results of experimental studies into the pharmacological safety of a pharmaceutical substance 4-[(3-oxo-3-ethoxypropanoyl)amino]benzoic acid (Etmaben) under a single intragastric administration at various experimental doses (60–3000 mg/kg) to female laboratory outbred rats. A clinical examination of the experimental animals was carried out in order to identify signs of intoxication. To that end, the level of food and water consumption was assessed and biochemical blood tests were performed. In addition, the state of the central nervous and cardiovascular systems, physical endurance, and respiratory rate were assessed. The tested pharmaceutical substance in the studied doses after a single intragastric administration to female rats had no negative effect on the behavior, blood parameters, the state of the central nervous system and the cardiovascular system of experimental animals.

Особенности работы сельскохозяйственных организаций в системе плодоовощеконсервного подкомплекса региона

In terms of the need to increase the sustainability of growth in production, the level of food consumption in the region does not yet significantly reach the rational stand-ards of healthy nutrition, the sectoral features of the work of agricultural organizations producing fruit and vegetable products are highlighted and the need to take them into account in the system of state regulation of the development of the fruit and vegetable canning subcomplex of the region is shown. the basis of increasing the coherence of the socio-economic interests of producers and the state.

Sustainable Food Consumption in India: A Systematic Review

Purpose: In order to thoroughly review and synthesise the available literature on sustainable food consumption practises in India, the research paper Sustainable Food Consumption in India: A Systematic Review was created. The purpose of the paper is to highlight significant developments, obstacles, and chances in relation to national food consumption, distribution, and production patterns that are sustainable. The study will assess the efficiency of various sustainable food initiatives, policies, and interventions in fostering environmental, social, and economic sustainability in the Indian food system using a systematic review method. The goal of this study is to help policymakers, entrepreneurs, and consumers create a more resilient and sustainable food system in India by analysing the present level of sustainable food consumption in that nation.&#x0D; Results: The findings suggest the need for comprehensive policies, support for sustainable agriculture, promotion of local food systems, and collaborative efforts between stakeholders.&#x0D; Conclusion: This research contributes to the understanding of sustainable food consumption in India. With this, sustainable food consumption in India can improve food security and the environment, according to the systematic study. This study provides the sources to help policymakers, academics, and stakeholders develop sustainable food consumption practises in India and a more resilient, ecologically friendly food system.