Waveguide Length Research Articles

Strain-concentration for fast, compact photonic modulation and non-volatile memory

A critical figure of merit (FoM) for electro-optic (EO) modulators is the transmission change per voltage, dT/dV. Conventional approaches in wave-guided modulators maximize dT/dV via a high EO coefficient or longer light-material interaction lengths but are ultimately limited by material losses and nonlinearities. Optical and RF resonances improve dT/dV at the cost of spectral non-uniformity, especially for high-Q optical cavity resonances. Here, we introduce an EO modulator based on piezo-strain-concentration of a photonic crystal cavity to address both trade-offs: (i) it eliminates the trade-off between dT/dV and waveguide loss—i.e., enhancement of the resonance tuning efficiency dv c /dV for the fixed EO coefficient, waveguide length, and cavity Q—and (ii) at high DC strains it exhibits a non-volatile (NV) cavity tuning Δvc,NV for passive memory and programming of multiple devices into resonance despite fabrication variations. The device is fabricated on a scalable silicon nitride-on-aluminum nitride platform. We measure dv c /dV=177±1MHz/V, corresponding to Δv c =40±0.32GHz for a voltage spanning ±120V with an energy consumption of δU/Δv c =0.17nW/GHz. The modulation bandwidth is flat up to ωBW,3dB/2π=3.2±0.07MHz for broadband DC-AC and 142±17MHz for resonant operation near a 2.8 GHz mechanical resonance. Optical extinction up to 25 dB is obtained via Fano-type interference. Strain-induced beam-buckling modes are programmable under a “read-write” protocol with a continuous, repeatable tuning range of 5±0.25GHz, allowing for storage and retrieval, which we quantify with mutual information of 2.4 bits and a maximum non-volatile excursion of 8 GHz. Using a full piezo-optical finite-element-model (FEM) we identify key design principles for optimizing strain-based modulators and chart a path towards achieving performance comparable to lithium niobate-based modulators and the study of high strain physics on-chip.

Freestanding Germanium Photonic Crystal Waveguide for a Highly Sensitive and Compact Mid-Infrared On-Chip Gas Sensor.

The performance of mid-infrared (MIR) on-chip gas sensors, operating via laser absorption spectroscopy, hinges critically on light-matter interaction dynamics, significantly influenced by external confinement and the effective light path length. Conventional on-chip sensors, however, face challenges in achieving the required limit of detection for highly sensitive applications, primarily due to their intrinsically short effective light path. Furthermore, these sensors are limited in their spectral range coverage within the MIR spectrum by the constraints of standard silicon-based platforms. To overcome these limitations, our research presents a novel approach to fabricate a freestanding germanium (Ge) photonic crystal waveguide (PCW) on a germanium-on-insulator (Ge-OI) platform, utilizing yttrium oxide (Y2O3) as the buried oxide layer. This device leverages the broad transparent windows of Ge and Y2O3, broadening the spectral coverage across the MIR range. The introduction of the PCW and its slow light effect significantly elevate external confinement and light-matter interactions, enabling a notable reduction in waveguide length, which traditionally limits on-chip configurations. The freestanding structure not only expands the sensing region and enhances external confinement but also prevents the emergence of leaky modes within the PCW. As a result, our compact sensor achieves an exceptionally low LoD of 7.56 ppm for carbon dioxide (CO2) sensing at the operational wavelength of 4.23 μm, with a compact waveguide length of only 800 μm.

Efficient and widely tunable mid-infrared sources using GaAs and AlGaAs integrated platforms for second-order frequency conversion

Integrated coherent mid-infrared (mid-IR) sources are crucial for spectroscopy and quantum frequency conversion (QFC) to facilitate scalable fiber-based application of single photons. Direct mid-IR emission with broad tunability poses fundamental challenges from the gain media and mirror components. This paper presents a characterization of a second-order nonlinear platform. It showcases a mid-IR parametric coherent source with a continuous tuning range exceeding 230 nm centered around 2425 nm, achieved through difference-frequency generation (DFG). The nonlinear coefficient d14 of gallium arsenide (GaAs) and aluminum gallium arsenide (AlGaAs) on insulator is experimentally determined via second-harmonic generation (SHG) in waveguides of various lengths, and the tolerance of the process is investigated. These materials are explored for their high conversion efficiency, utilizing monolithic epitaxial quantum dots and integrated waveguides for QFC. The results demonstrate efficient and tunable mid-IR emission suitable for compact, scalable quantum emitters, with applications in environmental and health monitoring.

Longitudinal chiral forces in photonic integrated waveguides to separate particles with realistically small chirality

Abstract Chiral optical forces exhibit opposite signs for the two enantiomeric versions of a chiral molecule or particle. If large enough, these forces might be able to separate enantiomers all optically, which would find numerous applications in different fields, from pharmacology to chemistry. Longitudinal chiral forces are especially promising for tackling the challenging scenario of separating particles of realistically small chiralities. In this work, we study the longitudinal chiral forces arising in dielectric integrated waveguides when the quasi-TE and quasi-TM modes are combined as well as their application to separate absorbing and non-absorbing chiral particles. We show that chiral gradient forces dominate in the scenario of beating of non-denegerate TE and TM modes when considering non-absorbing particles. For absorbing particles, the superposition of degenerate TE and TM modes can lead to chiral forces that are kept along the whole waveguide length. We accompany the calculations of the forces with particle tracking simulations for specific radii and chirality parameters. We show that longitudinal forces can separate non-absorbing chiral nanoparticles in water even for relatively low values of the particle chirality and absorbing particles with arbitrarily low values of chirality can be effectively separated after enough interaction time.

Quantized Dirac cones generated by one-dimensional multi-connected optical waveguide networks

This paper introduces one-dimensional (1D) limited periodic multi-connected vacuum optical waveguide networks (LPMVOWN), a fascinating class of photonic bandgap structures designed to produce Dirac cones. Unlike previously explored materials such as graphene, metamaterials, photonic crystals, and phononic crystals, optical waveguide networks produce a sequence of Dirac cones while also exhibiting quantum properties in the angular frequencies corresponding to these cone points. We used the topological translational periodicity inherent in optical waveguide networks to establish analytical relationships governing the angular frequency, slope, and number of Dirac cones generated by the system. These relationships are used to elucidate how parameters like the waveguide length ratio of the units, the number of waveguide connections, and the waveguide material influence these properties. This analysis improves our understanding of linear, degenerate, and concatenated energy band structures, as well as their potential applications. Furthermore, it offers valuable insights for enhancing the control of electromagnetic wave propagation and provides experimentalists with greater convenience and flexibility in their research endeavours.

Investigating orbital angular momentum modes in multimode interference (MMI) waveguides and revealing their mode conversion property

In this work, the propagation of OAM modes in multimode interference (MMI) waveguides, as the basic elements in many integrated optical devices, is studied to utilize their benefits in integrated OAM applications. OAM modes shape the OAM-maintaining image at the specific length of an MMI waveguide. As the most effective parameters on the properties of the generated image, waveguide’s width (W), topological charge (ℓ\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$\\ell$$\\end{document}) and waist radius (WR) of the input OAM modes are investigated. Power overlap integral (POI) is used to evaluate the quality of images. The investigations show that the calculated POI is enhanced by increasing in WR of the input mode (from 86.91% for WR = 1.5 µm to 98.92% for WR = 3.5 µm; where W = 15 µm and ℓ=±1\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$\\ell = \\pm 1$$\\end{document}). Furthermore, the increase in the waveguide’s width leads to decrease the quality of the self-imaged mode (from 98.90% for W = 15 µm to 85.15% for W = 50 µm; where WR = 3 µm and ℓ=±1\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$\\ell = \\pm 1$$\\end{document}). It is also demonstrated that mode conversion between even order of OAM modes with opposite topological charges can occur at OAM-maintaining length of the MMI waveguides, which is the most outstanding achievement of this survey for optical communication systems.

Capturing the Interplay Between TADF and RTP Through Mechanically Flexible Polymorphic Optical Waveguides

AbstractPolymorphism plays a pivotal role in generating a range of crystalline materials with diverse photophysical and mechanical attributes, all originating from the same molecule. Here, we showcase two distinct polymorphs: green (GY) emissive and orange (OR) emissive crystals of 5′‐(4‐(diphenylamino)phenyl)‐[2,2′‐bithiophene]‐5‐carbaldehyde (TPA‐CHO). These polymorphs display differing optical characteristics, with GY exhibiting thermally activated delayed fluorescence (TADF) and OR showing room temperature phosphorescence (RTP). Additionally, both polymorphic crystals display mechanical flexibility and optical waveguiding capabilities. Leveraging the AFM‐tip‐based mechanophotonics technique, we position the GY optical waveguide at varying lengths perpendicular to the OR waveguide. This approach facilitates the exploration of the interplay between TADF and RTP phenomena by judiciously controlling the optical path length of crystal waveguides. Essentially, our approach provides a clear pathway for understanding and controlling the photophysical processes in organic molecular crystals, paving the way for advancements in polymorphic crystal‐based photonic circuit technologies.

Capturing the Interplay Between TADF and RTP Through Mechanically Flexible Polymorphic Optical Waveguides.

Polymorphism plays a pivotal role in generating a range of crystalline materials with diverse photophysical and mechanical attributes, all originating from the same molecule. Here, we showcase two distinct polymorphs: green (GY) emissive and orange (OR) emissive crystals of 5'-(4-(diphenylamino)phenyl)-[2,2'-bithiophene]-5-carbaldehyde (TPA-CHO). These polymorphs display differing optical characteristics, with GY exhibiting thermally activated delayed fluorescence (TADF) and OR showing room temperature phosphorescence (RTP). Additionally, both polymorphic crystals display mechanical flexibility and optical waveguiding capabilities. Leveraging the AFM-tip-based mechanophotonics technique, we position the GY optical waveguide at varying lengths perpendicular to the OR waveguide. This approach facilitates the exploration of the interplay between TADF and RTP phenomena by judiciously controlling the optical path length of crystal waveguides. Essentially, our approach provides a clear pathway for understanding and controlling the photophysical processes in organic molecular crystals, paving the way for advancements in polymorphic crystal-based photonic circuit technologies.

A gap waveguide-based mechanically reconfigurable phase shifter for high-power Ku-band applications

This paper presents a novel design of a low-loss, reconfigurable broadband phase shifter based on groove gap waveguide (GGW) technology. The proposed phase shifter consists of a folded GGW and three bends with a few pins forming the GGW and one bend attached to a movable plate. This movable plate allows for adjustments to the folded waveguide length, consequently altering the phase of electromagnetic waves. The advantage of GGW technology is that it does not require electrical contact between different parts of a structure. Therefore, it enables the moving parts to slide freely without electromagnetic energy leakage, resulting in improved insertion loss in high-power applications. In addition, in the proposed design, the position of the input and output waveguide ports of the phase shifter remains fixed, which is advantageous from a practical point of view. As shown by measurement and simulation results, there is nearly 37% impedance bandwidth with the highest insertion loss of 0.6 dB, and the developed device has a maximum phase shift of 770° at the center frequency of 13 GHz. The phase shifter can be used for various radar and satellite applications that require phase control, such as beamforming networks and phased array antennas.

Continuous On‐Chip Synthesis of Ag Nanoparticles Assisted by Resonant Microwave Heating Using a Post‐Wall Waveguide

Microfluidics made of dimethylpolysiloxane were developed for chemical synthesis using microwave heating at 24.125 GHz, and microwave efficiency was enhanced by the microwave resonance effect. In addition, the device was fabricated using a mold created using a 3D printer to reduce production costs. The microchip structure comprised a post‐wall waveguide and a microchannel that passed through the waveguide. This post‐wall waveguide also comprises metal columns (post‐wall) instead of a conductor side wall, and easily introduces microchannels through the gaps between the metal columns. The waveguide length was adjusted to achieve a resonance frequency of 24 GHz using an electromagnetic wave simulation, assuming that the microchannel was filled with pure water. Microwaves with an input power of 4 W caused a maximum temperature increase of 93 °C; this result is ~10 °C higher than that of a microchip with non‐resonant structure. In this study, Ag nanoparticles were synthesized using a chemical reaction induced by microwave irradiation of a chip flow system. Owing to irradiating the mixing reagent with microwaves of an input power of 4 W while controlling the flow rate at 0.7 μl/min, the formation of Ag nanoparticles with an average particle size of ~19.2 ± 2.4 nm was demonstrated by absorbance measurements and dynamic light scattering. It is expected that microwave microfluidics enhanced by the resonance effect will substantialize nanoparticle synthesis and high‐efficiency automated chemical synthesis combined with multichemical unit operations. © 2024 Institute of Electrical Engineers of Japan and Wiley Periodicals LLC.

Novel elastomeric spiropyran-doped poly(dimethylsiloxane) optical waveguide for UV sensing

Novel poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) doped with two different spiropyran derivatives (SP) were investigated as potential candidates for the preparation of elastomeric waveguides with UV-dependent optical properties. First, free-standing films were prepared and evaluated with respect to their photochromic response to UV irradiation. Kinetics, reversibility as well as photofatigue and refractive index of the SP-doped PDMS samples were assessed. Second, SP-doped PDMS waveguides were fabricated and tested as UV sensors by monitoring changes in the transmitted optical power of a visible laser (633 nm). UV sensing was successfully demonstrated by doping PDMS using one spiropyran derivative whose propagation loss was measured as 1.04 dB/cm at 633 nm, and sensitivity estimated at 115% change in transmitted optical power per unit change in UV dose. The decay and recovery time constants were measured at 42 and 107 s, respectively, with an average UV saturation dose of 0.4 J/cm2. The prepared waveguides exhibited a reversible and consistent response even under bending. The sensor parameters can be tailored by varying the waveguide length up to 21 cm, and are affected by white light and temperatures up to 70 ℃. This work is relevant to elastomeric optics, smart optical materials, and polymer optical waveguide sensors.Graphical

Extending femtosecond laser superfilamentation in air with a multifocal phase mask

Laser filamentation is a spectacular phenomenon where the self-focusing of the laser pulse generates ionizing light channels. Many applications of filamentation, such as the laser lightning rod, require the generation of superfilaments, long plasma channels of higher electron density than normal filaments. Using a multifocal phase mask, we demonstrate an extension of the superfilamentation length of a focused terawatt laser beam. Optimized superfilaments show increased energy deposition compared to a normal gaussian beam and an extension of their length by at least a factor two. When put in contact with a high voltage electrode, the guiding of a single plasma column with a length of ∼1 m is observed. The length of an air waveguide generated by a vortex laser pulse is also increased by a factor 2 in the presence of the phase mask.

Theoretical analysis of passively mode-locked semiconductor ring lasers.

In this paper, the theoretical analysis of the passive mode-locked semiconductor ring lasers (PML-SRLs) is investigated based on a travelling wave model. It is found that both the optical confinement factor and the injection current make great contributions to the operation regime and the performance of PML-SRLs. All operation regimes of PML-SRLs are governed by the transient gain-loss balance. Such balance is closely associated with the relationship among the stimulated rate in the semiconductor optical amplifier (SOA), the carrier lifetime in the saturated absorber (SA), and the roundtrip time of the ring resonator. Furthermore, our investigation indicates that the mode-locked state of such PML-SRLs is independent of the passive waveguide, but the performance degrades with the increased waveguide loss or the shortened waveguide length, once the material bandwidth is wide enough. Another discovery is that it is possible to achieve the high energy pulse in the PML-SRL with shortening the passive length and narrowing the gain spectrum meanwhile. Overall, such investigations should benefit designing the required PML-SRLs and achieving the high performance.

Vertical directional coupling based grating emission engineering for optical phased arrays

In this Letter, a novel, to the best of our knowledge, vertical directional coupling waveguide grating (VDCWG) architecture is proposed to increase the length of waveguide grating antennas for large aperture on-chip optical phased arrays (OPAs). In this new architecture, the grating emission strength is engineered by the vertical directional coupler, which provides additional degrees of design freedom. Theoretical analysis and numerical simulation show that the VDCWG can adjust the grating strength in the range of more than two orders of magnitude, corresponding to an effective grating length more than a centimeter. For proof-of-concept, a VDCWG antenna with a length of 1.5 mm is experimentally demonstrated. The grating strength is measured to be 0.17 mm−1, and the far-field divergence angle is 0.061°. A 16-channel OPA is also developed based on the proposed VDCWG, which proves the potential of the new architecture for large aperture OPAs.

Experimental study of ultrasonic wave propagation in a long waveguide sensor for fluid-level sensing

This work reports an ultrasonic long waveguide sensor for measuring the fluid level utilizing longitudinal L(0,1), torsional T(0,1), and flexural F(1,1) wave modes. These wave modes were transmitted and received simultaneously using stainless-steel wire. A long waveguide (12 m) covers a broader region of interest and is suitable in the process industry's hostile environment applications, "fluid levels and temperature measurements." In this work, we used fluids "diesel, water, and glycerin" for measuring fluid levels based on the sensor's reflection factors from time domain and frequency domain signals. We examined the impact of wave modes' attenuation effects for long waveguide sensor design while changing the waveguide lengths. Initially, we obtained the L(0,1) and T(0,1) modes reflections from the 12.6 m waveguide length when one end of the long waveguide was fixed with a shear transducer at 45° orientation. Subsequently, we want to study and identify all wave modes'' (especially F mode) travel distances. Hence, we would like to investigate the guided wave propagation characteristics (attenuation, ultrasonic velocity, and frequency of all wave modes) in the long waveguide while cutting systematically at intervals of 1 meter, starting from its original length of the waveguide 12.6 meters by analyzing the A-scan signals of various lengths of a single waveguide. This simple and cost-effective technique can monitor the high fluid depths and temperature in power plants, oil, and petrochemical industries while designing a long waveguide sensor with appropriate ultrasonic parameters.

Slow-light-enhanced Brillouin scattering with integrated Bragg grating.

Advancements in photonic integration technology have enabled the effective excitation of simulated Brillouin scattering (SBS) on a single chip, boosting Brillouin-based applications such as microwave photonic signal processing, narrow-linewidth lasers, and optical sensing. However, on-chip circuits still require large pump power and centimeter-scale waveguide length to achieve a considerable Brillouin gain, making them both power-inefficient and challenging for integration. Here, we exploit the slow-light effect to significantly enhance SBS, presenting the first, to the best of our knowledge, demonstration of a slow-light Brillouin-active waveguide on the silicon-on-insulator (SOI) platform. By integrating a Bragg grating with a suspended ridge waveguide, a 2.1-fold enhancement of the forward Brillouin gain coefficient is observed in a 1.25 mm device. Furthermore, this device shows a Brillouin gain coefficient of 1,693 m-1W-1 and a mechanical quality factor of 1,080. The short waveguide length reduces susceptibility to inhomogeneous broadening, enabling the simultaneous achievement of a high Brillouin gain coefficient and a high mechanical quality factor. This approach introduces an additional dimension to enhance acousto-optic interaction efficiency in the SOI platform and holds significant potential for microwave photonic filters and high spatial resolution sensing.

Accurate numerical analysis of resonances in random waveguides: Effects of the waveguide length

In this study, the transmission frequency dependence of the random waveguide, which is the waveguide having a randomly corrugated boundary, on waveguide length is investigated using an accurate numerical method. While resonances in the low-frequency region are caused by the interference among the dominant modes, those in the high-frequency region are caused by the mode conversion from the dominant mode to the second mode. Furthermore, their characteristics have not been investigated in detail. Numerical analysis shows that the resonant frequencies in the high-frequency region are nearly independent of the length of the random waveguide within the numerical error. It indicates that random waveguides can be regarded as a stack of independent resonators in high-frequency regions.

Theoretical and experimental investigation of on‐chip silicon‐on‐insulator waveguide methane sensor

AbstractCompared to discrete gas sensors, on‐chip waveguide gas sensors show a wide range of application scenarios due to their small size, light weight, and low power consumption. An on‐chip silicon‐on‐insulator waveguide methane (CH4) sensor was proposed. The optimal waveguide length was determined to be 2.2 cm through theoretical analysis. By targeting an absorption line located at 3291 nm, on‐chip methane measurements were conducted using the established waveguide sensor system. The 1σ limit of detection of the waveguide sensor was measured to be 662 parts‐per‐million and the dynamic response time was 1.6 s. This work verifies the feasibility of the waveguide gas sensor and provides technical support for future research work on fully integrated waveguide sensors.

Bound states in the continuum in circular waveguides: toward the on-chip integration of nanofiber on silicon platform.

In previously reported researches on bound state in the continuum (BIC) waveguides, almost all of them are demonstrated with top-down fabrication procedures, leading to inconvenience for post-manipulation and size tuning. Nanofibers with circular cross sections are the fundamental components to transport energy due to their intrinsic advantages of high flexibility and adjustability, which is replaceable and can be readily manipulated over size and position on the substrate. In this work, we explore the possibility of achieving on-chip integration of silica nanofiber onto a silicon-on-insulator platform. By constructing additional leakage channels in coupled nanofiber waveguides, coherently destructive interferences are successfully achieved. The heavy leakage losses from the low-index nanofiber to a high-index silicon substrate are completely eliminated with BIC, and the propagation length of the nanofiber waveguide is significantly improved.

Crosstalk reduction for Arrayed waveguide gratings on Silicon-on-Insulator platform

Ultracompact silicon-based arrayed waveguide gratings (AWGs) with low loss and low crosstalk are essential for on-chip optical interconnect and miniaturized spectroscopic analysis systems. In our previous research, we demonstrated the crosstalk reduction by utilizing constant projection period for phased array waveguide on the tangent line to the grating pole to reduce the imaging error induced by phased array waveguide end point positions [1] and using deep etching waveguides at the interface of free propagation region to further decrease the footprint of phase region of an AWG to reduce fabrication imperfections induced phase error [2]. Here we first study the effect of curved waveguides in the phased array of 16 × 400 GHz AWGs on the adjacent crosstalk of output channels. According to the AWGs made in our fabrication platform and the testing results of five dies from one wafer at different locations, the AWGs with equal length of single-mode curved waveguides have an average adjacent crosstalk level of ∼ 4 dB smaller than those with equal length of narrow single-mode waveguides composed of straight and curved waveguides in their phased array. Based on the design of equal curved waveguide length in phased array, in combination with our reported approaches on crosstalk reduction, 16 × 200 GHz, 8 × 800 GHz and 8 × 1250 GHz AWGs are fabricated. For characterization, five dies including all designs from different locations of the fabricated wafer are tested. Experimental results show that among these five dies, the best adjacent crosstalk levels are less than − 21.97 dB, −25.72 dB, −24.83 dB and the worst adjacent crosstalk levels are less than − 20.51 dB, −25.03 dB, −24.34 dB for 16 × 200 GHz, 8 × 800 GHz and 8 × 1250 GHz AWGs with FPR angle of 120°, respectively, within the passband width of 25 % channel spacing. The on-chip insertion losses for all output channels of these fabricated AWGs are less than 3 dB.