This study examines strategies to enhance the economic viability and environmental sustainability of lithium-ion battery (LiB) remanufacturing in electric vehicles (EVs). It evaluates centralised and decentralised closed-loop supply chain (CLSC) models, integrating blockchain technology and dynamic optimisation to improve transparency, coordination, and cost efficiency. Using Tesla’s battery collection and remanufacturing operations in China as a case study, the research employs expert interviews, legal framework analysis, and industry reports. Optimisation techniques, including Python’s PuLP and Monte Carlo simulations, identify cost-effective network configurations. Findings reveal that economies of scale and blockchain integration significantly reduce costs by over 86% for moderate volumes and 81% for large volumes. The study challenges the perception of LiB remanufacturing as unprofitable, demonstrating its commercial feasibility at scale. Strategic measures, including regional remanufacturing centres and optimised logistics, are recommended to support the circular economy and long-term sustainability in the EV industry.

Austria has only recently established a legal framework for assisted dying. Individuals seeking assistance in suicide must navigate a multistage process that has been criticized for its complexity both for the individuals seeking assistance and for the health care and legal professionals involved in the procedure. To address the critical gap in empirical research that sheds light on the law's implementation and its impact on the lived experiences of those involved, as well as on the broader health care sector, we have designed an evaluation that examines the various perspectives of individuals seeking assisted suicide; their family members and other relatives; and all professionals specified in the legal framework-notably physicians, notaries and other relevant legal professionals, pharmacists, and psychologists. Our study uses an interdisciplinary approach that integrates theories, concepts, and methodologies from legal science, ethics, and social science. The legal and ethical components examine aspects of the Austrian legal framework, such as the legal foundations, moral implications, and ethical challenges involved in assisted dying. The main part of this study lies in its comprehensive social science section, which consists of 2 online cross-sectional surveys. The surveys assess sociodemographic characteristics, knowledge and understanding of the framework, encounters and experiences with assisted suicide, and reported need for support and information on the legalization of assisted suicide. In parallel, we are in the process of conducting semistructured in-depth interviews with (1) individuals seeking assistance in dying, (2) family members and other relatives of the individuals seeking assistance in dying, and (3) professionals mentioned in the legal framework (eg, physicians). Thematic analysis will be used to interpret the interview data. The initial research proposal received approval from the University of Vienna Ethics Committee in November 2023. The legal and ethical analyses are ongoing. Recruitment for interview participants began in January 2024. In total, 49 participants have been interviewed as of February 2026. Given the novelty of the legislation and the limited practical experience to date, further interviews are scheduled until April 2026. Data collection for both surveys took place from June to October 2024. The final samples consisted of 239 medical and nursing directors and 304 physicians. Data analysis was completed in May 2025. Completion and dissemination of all study components are anticipated by the end of 2026. Our multiperspective evaluation aims to assess the framework on assisted suicide in Austria. By evaluating the perspectives of relevant key stakeholders, we aim to provide a nuanced understanding of the law's societal, legal, and ethical implications.

The task of ensuring the proactive nature of the investigation of fire cases by the investigative bodies of the State Fire Supervision of the Federal Fire Service is being updated. The analysis is based on statistical data on the number of criminal fires and the results of the investigation of criminal cases related to crimes under the jurisdiction of the State Fire Supervision of the Federal Fire Service, as well as on the materials of specific criminal cases and proceedings on administrative offenses. The purpose of the study is to substantiate the importance of the proactive nature of investigative actions, especially in the context of the widespread use of modern science and technology. The main research methods are formal legal and systemic analysis in their dialectical unity. The results of the study are an additional step towards the formation of proactive forensic thinking among the investigators of the State Fire Supervision of the Federal Fire Service.

ABSTRACT This article examines the fragile balance between legality and creativity in the depiction of virtual child imagery in anime and manga. While these cultural products are fictional, their artistic style often emphasizing infantilized or youthful features raises significant legal and ethical challenges. Adopting a qualitative approach, this study critically evaluates Malaysian legal framewords and highlights how the relevant statutory provisions treat fictional or animated depctions on par with real child sexual abuse material, despite the absence of real victims. Comparative reference is made to Australia’s Online Safety Act 2021, demonstrating how regulatory models attempt to safeguard children while accounting for freedom of expression. Findings suggest that Malaysia’s current approach risks over-criminalization of artistic works, leading to a potential slippery slope where virtual depictions are equated with actual child exploitation. The study underscores the importance of developing nuanced legal frameworks that both safeguard childnren’s rights and respect creative freedoms.

The rapid development of platform-based digital economy has significantly transformed legal relationships between digital platform companies and their business partners, particularly through the use of standard form contracts drafted unilaterally. This study aims to analyze the inequality of standard contracts in digital platforms and to examine the relevance of legal protection for business partners based on Law Number 8 of 1999 concerning Consumer Protection. This research applies a qualitative approach using normative juridical methods, focusing on the analysis of statutory regulations, legal doctrines, and contractual practices in the digital economy. The results indicate that standard form contracts in digital platforms create an unequal bargaining position between platforms and their partners, reflected in the presence of exemption clauses, transfer of operational risks, and unilateral authority to modify policies and terminate partnerships. Such conditions potentially contradict the principles of justice, fairness, and good faith in contract law. Furthermore, the position of business partners substantively reflects characteristics of a weaker party, thereby justifying the need for legal protection. Through an extensive interpretation, the provisions of Consumer Protection Law, particularly Article 18, can be applied as a legal basis to invalidate unfair standard clauses. Therefore, stronger regulatory frameworks and government supervision are required to establish a more equitable, balanced, and sustainable digital business envi

Online harassment against women has emerged as a critical, social, psychological, and legal concern in an increasingly digitized world. Women face harassment in various forms cyberstalking, doxxing, non-consensual image sharing, hate campaigns, sexualized trolling, revenge pornography, deepfake exploitation, and other manifestations of technologyfacilitated gender-based violence. Although numerous national and international legal frameworks have attempted to address these evolving harms, significant gaps persist between legislative intent and enforcement realities. This study provides a comprehensive, detailed, and critical examination of the current legal protections against online harassment targeting women and the enforcement barriers that undermine those protections. Using a qualitative methodology grounded in legal analysis, comparative review, case examination, and thematic interpretation, the research uncovers systemic failures in policing, judicial interpretation, digital forensic capability, and public awareness. Findings show that patriarchal biases, weak technological infrastructure, cross-border complexities, opaque platform policies, and societal stigma contribute to weak accountability. The paper proposes well-founded reforms including legal modernization, improved cyberpolicing, coordinated international cooperation, gender-sensitive training, and stronger digital literacy initiatives to build safer online environments for women.

The Digital Services Act (DSA) represents a landmark regulatory context aiming to secure a safer, trusted and more transparent digital environment. While the DSA establishes a harmonised regulatory framework for intermediary services across the EU, its enforcement system relies significantly on national regulatory authorities, leaving member states a degree of institutional autonomy in designing the supervisory structures. This article examines the implementation of the DSA in Cyprus and discusses the national legal framework adopted through primary and secondary legislation. It analyses the powers, legally mandated tasks, rights, and obligations of the digital services coordinator in Cyprus including its supervisory, investigatory, and enforcement competences as well as the sanctioning mechanisms. This article provides a comprehensive legal analysis of the coordinator’s operation and contributes to the academic debate on the national implementation of the DSA as a horizontal legal tool of intermediary services and digital platforms accessed by European citizens.

Purpose This study aims to evaluate the implementation of the principle of meaningful participation in the Indonesian lawmaking process and to assess the extent to which public participation is present in the formulation of legislation in the extractive sector. This research highlights the absence of measurable indicators for assessing how legislation operationalizes the principle of meaningful participation in Indonesia, thereby complicating efforts to ensure that enacted regulations align with societal needs and remain effective in practice. Design/methodology/approach This doctrinal legal research uses statutory and comparative approaches to examine and contrast legislative frameworks governing natural resource exploitation as the unit of analysis. Through doctrinal inquiry, it develops conceptual indicators that operationalize the principle of meaningful participation within the broader context of participatory lawmaking. Findings The findings indicate that the implementation of meaningful participation in lawmaking should be assessed across two principal stages: (1) the procedural stage, which examines who participates, when participation occurs and how it is conducted; and (2) the outcome accommodation stage, which gauges the extent to which public inputs are substantively incorporated into draft regulations. This two-tier framework provides a more systematic basis for evaluating the quality of participation and legislative responsiveness. Research limitations/implications This research is confined to doctrinal and comparative legal analysis and does not incorporate field based empirical data. Future research may further develop this operational framework through case based or empirical validation to assess the practical performance of meaningful participation indicators within specific jurisdictions. Originality/value This research contributes a normative assessment demonstrating that the principle of meaningful participation as provided under Law No. 13 of 2022 lacks defined indicators to ensure its effective implementation. It proposes a novel operational model to give effect to meaningful participation in lawmaking through two stages “process” and “outcome accommodation.” While participation has commonly been treated as an abstract normative ideal, this research reframes it as an evaluative and measurable concept that supports participatory and deliberative democracy. The framework offers practical value for policymakers, legislators and civil society actors in advancing equitable and just legal outcomes.

Cybercrime has emerged as a significant threat to economic stability, governance, and security worldwide, with particularly profound implications for developing regions such as Africa. In response, many African countries have adopted cybercrime laws and policy frameworks aimed at preventing, detecting, and prosecuting cyber offences. However, the effectiveness of these legal frameworks remains unclear. This study addresses this gap by conducting a systematic literature review to assess the effectiveness of cybercrime laws in Africa, with a particular focus on enforcement challenges, institutional capacity, and policy reform. Using a systematic review approach guided by the SPIDER framework and PRISMA 2020 guidelines, relevant studies were identified from African Journals Online (AJOL) and Google Scholar. A total of 850 records were retrieved, of which 19 studies met the inclusion criteria following rigorous screening and quality appraisal. The review integrates empirical studies, legal analyses, and policy documents to provide a comprehensive synthesis of cybercrime governance across the African context. The findings reveal a persistent gap between the formal existence of cybercrime laws and their practical enforcement. Across multiple contexts, enforcement effectiveness is constrained by institutional, technological, legal, and socio-cultural barriers, including limited technical expertise, inadequate digital forensic capacity, weak inter-agency coordination, and low levels of digital literacy. The results further indicate that the proliferation of cybercrime legislation has not translated into proportional improvements in enforcement outcomes. This study contributes to the literature by advancing a capacity-centric perspective on cybercrime governance, demonstrating that the effectiveness of legal frameworks is contingent upon institutional and technological capabilities rather than legislative presence alone. The findings highlight the need for integrated policy approaches that prioritise capacity-building, technological investment, and regional cooperation, while also ensuring the protection of fundamental rights. Overall, the study provides a comprehensive and policy-relevant assessment of cybercrime law effectiveness in Africa, offering insights for researchers, policymakers, and practitioners seeking to strengthen cybercrime governance in the region.

Book Review: Comparative Approaches to Law and Religion: Methods and Epistemologies of Comparative Legal Analysis by Renae Barker, Camilla Baasch Andersen, and Mohammad Rasmi Alumari (eds)

This paper undertakes a comparative legal analysis of copyright protection for cinematographic works in India alongside established international norms, particularly focusing on the challenges presented by digital technologies and artificial intelligence. It critically examines how emerging issues like generative AI necessitate a re-evaluation of existing copyright frameworks to maintain a balance between safeguarding creators' rights and fostering innovation . Specifically, this study will delve into the complexities arising from generative AI's capacity to produce novel outputs from copyrighted material, thereby implicating the integrity of copyright protection and the evolving contours of personality rights . This analysis will also explore the potential for non-expressive use of copyrighted works in machine learning, considering whether such applications fall outside traditional copyright subject matter entirely in the Indian legal context. The paper will assess how various jurisdictions are currently navigating the intricate intersection of generative AI, copyright, and personality rights, examining recent legal developments and judicial interpretations. Furthermore, this research will investigate the unique architectural elements within Indian Copyright Law that might offer distinct perspectives on issues such as reproduction and adaptation rights in the context of AI-generated content . Such an examination is crucial given the global implications of AI-generated content, which can transcend national borders instantaneously, leading to diverse legal consequences across different jurisdictions. This comparative study endeavors to identify best practices and potential pathways for harmonization between India's copyright regime and international standards in addressing these technologically induced legal complexities.

This article examines the institutional and legal aspects of combating corruption in the Republic of Kazakhstan through the prism of criminal law. It emphasizes that corruption undermines the foundations of statehood, disrupts the rule of law, and reduces public trust in government institutions, posing a threat to national security. Based on an analysis of legislation and strategic documents, as well as a comparative legal analysis with international standards, a comprehensive approach to reforming criminal legislation and strengthening the institutional infrastructure is proposed. The research demonstrates that the effectiveness of combating corruption largely depends on the consistency of criminal law regulation and the coherence of institutional mechanisms involved in the prevention, investigation, and prosecution of corruption-related offenses. A comparative analysis with international standards and foreign practices confirms the need to adapt national legislation to ensure greater legal certainty and uniformity of law enforcement practice. In conclusion, strengthening anti-corruption policy requires a comprehensive approach combining legislative reform, institutional development, and the formation of a sustainable anti-corruption culture. Improving investigative and judicial practices, enhancing preventive measures, and ensuring alignment with international anti-corruption standards may significantly increase the effectiveness of criminal law responses to corruption

ABSTRACT The need for a specialized High Investment Court in Ukraine arises from the challenges of effectively adjudicating investment disputes, ensuring legal certainty and promoting economic growth. This research aims to analyze the feasibility and necessity of establishing such a court, taking into account international practices and the Ukrainian legal landscape. The methodology includes a comparative legal analysis of investment dispute settlement mechanisms in different jurisdictions, as well as an examination of current legal framework and arbitration procedures in Ukraine. The findings reveal significant gaps in the protection of investors’ rights, delays in the resolution of cases, and inconsistencies in judicial decisions that deter foreign investment. The study concludes that a High Investment Court would improve Ukraine’s investment climate by providing a specialized, transparent and efficient dispute resolution mechanism. Its establishment would align Ukraine with global best practices, increase investor confidence, and contribute to economic stability.

The right to education is universally recognized as a fundamental human right under major international legal instruments, including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR). Despite these protections, Rohingya women and children living in the refugee camps of Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh, continue to face significant barriers to accessing equitable and quality education. This study critically examines the legal, policy, and socio-structural challenges affecting the realization of this right. Employing a qualitative multi-method approach that integrates doctrinal legal analysis with socio-legal inquiry, the research evaluates international human rights obligations, domestic legal frameworks, and the practical realities within refugee camp settings. The findings reveal substantial gaps between Bangladesh’s international commitments and the absence of explicit domestic legal protections for refugees, resulting in weak enforcement mechanisms and limited educational access. The study further identifies key barriers, including policy inconsistencies, inadequate institutional coordination, gender-based discrimination, early marriage, language constraints, and exclusion of children with disabilities. Although community-based and non-formal educational initiatives, such as Home Schools and the Learning Competency Framework and Approach (LCFA), have partially addressed these challenges, their effectiveness remains constrained by limited legal recognition and unsustainable funding structures. The article argues for comprehensive legal reform, stronger policy harmonization, and inclusive, gender-sensitive educational interventions to ensure the effective realization of the right to education for Rohingya women and children.

The article is devoted to the analysis of the principle of legality (Nullum crimen sine lege) in the context of its consolidation in the national legislation of the Republic of Armenia and compliance with the provisions of the Rome Statute of the ICC. The purpose of the study is to identify the distinctive features of this principle and the specifics of its application at two levels of legal regulation. The provisions of the new Criminal Code of the Republic of Armenia reflecting modern approaches to ensuring legality in criminal law are discussed. Special attention is paid to the analysis of law enforcement practice in Armenia, aimed at observing the principle of legality and ensuring legal certainty when bringing to criminal responsibility. The comparative legal analysis makes it possible to identify both the features of the national approach and the degree of compliance with international standards.

The concept of evergreening in pharmaceutical patents has emerged as a critical issue at the intersection of intellectual property law and public health in India. Evergreening refers to the strategic practice by pharmaceutical companies of obtaining multiple patents on minor modifications of existing drugs, thereby extending their market exclusivity beyond the original patent term. This study undertakes a comprehensive legal analysis of evergreening within the framework of the Indian Patents Act, 1970, particularly focusing on Section 3(d), and examines its compatibility with the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS). India has adopted a cautious and public health-oriented approach to patent protection, aiming to balance innovation incentives with access to affordable medicines. Section 3(d) serves as a key safeguard by denying patents to new forms of known substances unless they demonstrate enhanced therapeutic efficacy. This provision has been instrumental in preventing the misuse of patent rights through incremental innovations that lack substantial clinical benefit. The landmark judgment in Novartis AG v. Union of India is analyzed to understand the judicial interpretation of Section 3(d) and its role in curbing evergreening practices. The research further evaluates whether India’s patent regime aligns with its international obligations under TRIPS, which mandates minimum standards of patent protection while allowing member states certain flexibilities. It argues that India has effectively utilized these flexibilities to design a patent system that prioritizes public health without violating TRIPS norms. The study also highlights ongoing debates surrounding the tension between pharmaceutical innovation and accessibility, especially in developing countries. By critically examining statutory provisions, judicial precedents, and international frameworks, this paper concludes that India’s legal stance on evergreening represents a balanced and pragmatic model. It not only discourages trivial patent extensions but also ensures that genuine innovations are rewarded. The analysis underscores the importance of maintaining this equilibrium to promote both technological advancement and equitable healthcare access in the evolving global patent landscape.

Objective : to substantiate the need for an integrative approach to legal and spiritual-moral education of young people under digitalization of society; to develop a scientifically based model for the prevention and correction of cyberaddictive behavior by synthesizing legal, pedagogical and ethical components. Methods : the research uses a set of theoretical and empirical methods, including dialectical and systematic approaches, analysis and synthesis, modeling and forecasting. Comparative-legal and historical legal analysis was applied to study the evolution of legislation in the field of digital security. The authors conducted an interdisciplinary analysis of the achievements of computer science, sociology, psychology and pedagogy and used a system-structural approach to study the interaction of government structures, educational and civil society institutions. Results : the study revealed significant fragmentation of legislation and the absence of federal digital hygiene programs, which hinders the formation of legal awareness among young people. The authors proposed a definition of cyberaddictive behavior as a complex personal and legal deviation affecting the basic behavioral norms and indicating a crisis of the value system. They developed a conceptual model to form the “digital immunity” of youth, integrating legal regulation, educational technologies, and psychological support. Key areas of improvement identified are the adoption of special legislative initiatives, the introduction of programs for the development of digital legal culture, and the creation of interdepartmental mechanisms for early diagnosis and correction of digital deviations. Scientific novelty : the work conceptualizes cyberaddiction as a multidimensional legal and value challenge of the digital generation. An interdisciplinary model of education was developed that takes into account the transformation of legal consciousness under digitalization. New definitions of key concepts were proposed, as well as a systematic approach to the prevention of pathological forms of digital behavior. “Digital socialization” was conceptualized as a special area of legal education. Practical significance : the results obtained are applicable in educational programs and standards; for developing the course “Fundamentals of digital legal culture”; for training accredited specialists in cyberaddiction prevention; for creating interdepartmental digital hygiene programs at the national, departmental and educational levels. The proposed measures contribute to the formation of critical thinking, digital literacy, self-regulation skills and resistance to manipulation in cyberspace among young people.

This article examines the necessity of enshrining the right to a healthy environment in the second chapter of the Constitution in light of international and European legal developments. It traces the emergence and gradual consolidation of this right from the 1972 Stockholm Declaration and the 1992 Rio Declaration to the 2022 resolution of the United Nations General Assembly. Particular attention is given to the role of the Aarhus Convention in shaping procedural guarantees and to the case‑law of the European Court of Human Rights, through which environmental protection has been linked to the rights to life, private life, and property, thereby affirming States’ positive obligations. Through a comparative legal analysis, the article presents constitutional solutions adopted in several European countries and explores the specific features of their judicial application. It argues that incorporating the right to a healthy environment into the second chapter of the Constitution would render the State’s environmental obligations directly applicable, broaden the toolkit of constitutional review, and provide an interpretative framework for the systematic development of national environmental legislation. The purpose of the study is to assess the necessity of constitutionally entrenching the right to a healthy environment in the second chapter of the Constitution of the Republic of Armenia, devoted to fundamental rights and freedoms.

Objective: to experimentally check the ability of publicly available neural networks to solve formalized criminal law problems with a pre-established normatively correct result. Methods: a set of complementary methods of scientific cognition helped to achieve the work objective. The methods of analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction formed the general scientific basis, which made it possible to systematically comprehend the issues under study. Among special legal tools were formal legal analysis and official interpretation of legal norms, which ensured the rigorous normative assessment of the results obtained. The key empirical research method was a controlled experiment, organically combined with modeling law enforcement situations and a comparative analysis of the answers of six publicly available neural networks to identical criminal law problems. Results: during the experiment, publicly available neural networks showed significant discrepancies in the accuracy and consistency of answers to formalized criminal law problems: none of the tested models demonstrated a stable and error-free result. In the absence of direct reference to the relevant legal sources, the models systematically made mistakes when determining the term of conviction expungement, applying the rules for sentencing, and determining the type of recidivism of crimes. This indicates reproductive rather than analytical-legal nature of the models. Providing accurate quotations from regulations and explanations of the Russian Supreme Court Plenum significantly improves the correctness of answers from certain neural networks. The most and least effective models were identified, as well as the basic requirements for drafting a legally correct query in the field of criminal proceedings. Scientific novelty: the study is an attempt to experimentally check the capabilities of publicly available neural networks in relation to specific criminal law problems with a pre-established normatively correct answer. The results obtained made it possible to propose the typology of errors made by neural networks, reveal their procedural causes, and identify the fundamental limitations of using generative artificial intelligence in law enforcement. Practical significance: the results can be used in law enforcement and education: to determine the acceptable limits of using publicly available neural networks in criminal proceedings; to develop methodological recommendations for making legally correct queries to generative artificial intelligence systems; and to prevent typical errors when using neural networks in professional legal activity.

Objective: to propose an effective legal mechanism for regulating the use of artificial intelligence in the space sector with a focus on preventing harmful effects and preserving the peaceful and purposeful use of technology. Methods: the research uses the method of comparative legal analysis, doctrinal legal reasoning and scenario analysis of escalation risks. It provides a normative historical analysis of the main treaties of international space law and state practices, comparing them with the approaches of international environmental law focused on achieving specific results. The author additionally relies on the analysis of precedent documents and public policy initiatives illustrating the actual practices of militarization and commercialization of space infrastructure. Results: the study demonstrates that existing international treaty mechanisms do not provide sufficient regulation for dual-use artificial intelligence systems. It identifies gaps in definitions, codification of responsibility, and control mechanisms for autonomous actions. An alternative regulatory approach is proposed, focused not on regulating the technology per se, but on prohibiting specific harmful results (formation of orbital debris, uncontrolled autonomous attacks, signal suppression, etc.). Based on this logic, the author developed a concept of an international agreement with a mandatory annex listing prohibited uses of artificial intelligence and mechanisms for holding states accountable. Scientific novelty: a result-oriented approach to regulating artificial intelligence in space was formalized and justified from a legal point of view, adapting the prohibition model to modern dual-use threats. A typology of prohibited consequences was proposed and correlated with the existing international responsibility institutions. Practical significance: the proposal may serve as the basis for the development of an international treaty or an add-on to international space law. It provides a tool for national licensing and control, facilitates the coordination of positions between states and private operators, and is aimed at preserving innovation while minimizing risks to the sustainability of space activities.