Lean Period Research Articles

Resource assessment and strategic planning for improvement of water supply to Shimla city in India using geo-spatial techniques

This study focuses on suggesting short term corrective measures for improving water supply to Shimla city which is the state capital of Himachal Pradesh in India. The city is getting water supply from seven sources located in three watersheds, namely, Nauti, Ashwani and Giri watershed. Nauti and Ashwani watersheds have fully been tapped but Giri watershed is partly tapped. Presently, only 20 MLD (million litres per day) of water is being drawn from Giri River which is about 37% of the present water demand.Resource assessment in Giri watershed was accomplished using Remote Sensing Techniques and GIS based Arc-SWAT Hydrological Model. Study has established that average annual precipitation in the Giri watershed for 26 years (1984–2010) is about 1011.44mm, out of which about 32% flows as runoff, 12% as groundwater and about 56% as evapotranspiration. The monthly inflow varies from 0.37 to 18.93m3/s and 75% annual dependable discharge is 2.80m3/s at the existing Headworks.Being ungauged watershed there are no statistical data for validation of results. However considering Water Balance Equation as the validation criteria, coefficient of correlation “R” between observed Rainfall and simulated Runoff was found to be 0.94 which validates the output. Results were further validated through actual measurement of inflow in lean period, which surprisingly has shown very good correlation (R=0.95) between simulated and observed stream flow. Model output further reveals that the excess inflow can be utilized to fulfill additional water demand of 42.61MLD (2031) for Shimla city by creating storage of about 1.12MCM (million cubic metres).

Comment on ‘Responsibility for the third world factory: limits of eurocentric CSR and making room for the state’

The outsourcing by MNCs to third world factories and their consequent impact on social, environmental and economic outcomes are an important area of research. From a perspective of corporate social responsibility, this stream of literature (Cramer 2008; Ciliberti et al. 2008) covers how international best practices and positive benefits are transferred by firms to their supplier country environments. Porter and Kramer (2006, 2011) enlarge the scope of such practices and position CSR to include voluntary activities by corporations that go beyond legal compliances in the host country. In that sense, compliance with local laws on social contracts such as labour laws, environmental standards are presumed to be the starting point of CSR practices. Crane et al. (2014) critique that social and environmental standards are given a short shrift by business firms, to which Porter and Kramer respond that meeting legal requirements and some sense of social responsibility is perquisite to creating shared value. Lu et al. (2014) argue that CSR involves activities taken by companies in excess of legal requirement. ISO 26000 lay down rules for business to be conducted in a socially responsible way, and European Commission has published a 2011–2014 strategy for CSR, requiring enterprises to integrate social, environmental and ethical practices to be integrated in business operations of European Companies. In April 2014, European Parliament passed a law that would make it mandatory for companies to ‘address ‘‘policies, risks and results’’ in relation to ‘‘social, environmental and human rights impact, diversity and anti-corruption policies’’ in their annual reports. Thus, context of CSR practices by firms must be seen as distinct from regulatory function of governments to ensure equitable and social justice, which also includes a power to regulate misuse of common property resources. As argued above, CSR practices must be seen and exercised in excess of legal requirements to ensure minimum social, ethical and environmental standards. Recent changes to The Companies Act, 2013 with respect to CSR by Indian Government reflect spending the CSR monies out of net profits of company on activities which are totally divorced from activities conducted in ‘normal course of business’. The author focuses on MNC/TNCs supplier factories in third world and argues that it may not be right for state to cede the right to provide social good to businesses/TNCs, and that, quote ‘state has to actively engage in provision of labour benefits, ensuring allowances/wages for lean periods, social security, medical and health benefits, technology and infrastructure for environmentally safe practices, unquote, appears to maintain that distinction. The argument that TNC imposed foreign CSR on supplier G. K. Agrawal (&) Institute of Rural Management Anand, Anand 388001, India e-mail: girish@irma.ac.in

Effect of sugar beet tubers as a partial replacer to green fodder on production performance and economics of lactating Surti buffaloes in lean period.

Aim:The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of sugar beet tubers as a replacer to green fodder on production performance and economics of lactating Surti buffaloes.Materials and Methods:This trial was conducted at the Livestock Research Station, Navsari Agricultural University, Navsari. Twenty lactating Surti buffaloes in a changeover experimental design were selected to assess the effects of replacing green fodder with sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.) tubers on production performance, economics of feeding sugar beet and blood biochemical profile. Half (50%) of the hybrid Napier was replaced with sliced sugar beet tubers in the ration of experimental animals.Results:Partial replacement of hybrid Napier with that of sugar beet tubers numerically improved dry matter intake, milk yield, 4% fat corrected milk and milk composition parameters such as fat, solid non-fat, protein and lactose, but not significantly. The blood parameters were in normal range and non-significant except that of glucose and triglycerides, which were increased in the sugar beet group. Replacing sugar beet tubers also proved to be cost-effective with improved net profit around Rs. 6.63/day.Conclusion:It can be concluded that 50% hybrid Napier fodder can be replaced with sugar beet tubers without any adverse effect on animal production performance, milk composition blood biochemical profile and economics of feeding.

Understanding stable bi-female grouping in gibbons: feeding competition and reproductive success.

IntroductionSpecies of the order Primates are highly gregarious with most species living in permanent heterosexual social groups. According to theory in socioecology maximum social group size is limited by rates of intra-group feeding competition and associated increases in travel costs. Unlike other hylobatids, which are predominantly pair living, cao vit gibbons (Nomascus nasutus), and two other species of crested gibbon (Nomascus spp.) living in northern seasonal forest, regularly exhibit larger bi-female groups. To better understand the ability of northern gibbons to live in stable bi-female groups, we examined food distribution, feeding competition and reproductive success over a period of six years in a small cao vit gibbon population at Bangliang, Guangxi, China.ResultsIn general, we found weak evidences for within-group contest or scramble competition in our two study groups, which we attribute to high spatial and temporal heterogeneity in the distribution of their important food species. Nevertheless, the larger of the two groups studied increased feeding time and group spread during lean periods, factors that may limit cao vit gibbon group size to a maximum of two breeding females. Relative to tropical pair-living gibbons, there is no evidence that cao vit gibbons travel farther or spend more time feeding, but they did consume more leaves and buds and less fruit and figs. Despite their highly folivorous diet, the average inter-birth interval is comparable to tropical gibbon populations, and the survival rate of infants and juveniles in our study groups is high.ConclusionCao vit gibbons do not suffer obvious costs in terms of feeding competition and reproductive success by living in bi-female groups, but within-group feeding competition may determine the upper the limit of cao vit gibbon group size to a maximum of two breeding females. These findings contribute to a growing body of evidence that bi-female grouping can be a stable grouping pattern of gibbons in certain habitats and further emphasize the flexibility of gibbon social organization.

Trend analysis in market arrivals and prices of Moth Bean in Rajasthan

The seasonal indices analysis of arrivals and prices revealed that when major portion of the produce was received in the market, the prices were at the lowest. There was a significant negative correlation between prices and arrivals of Moth bean in Nagaur and Jodhpur. However, there was negative but non-significant correlation in Merta and Jaipur markets. However, in Nokha market, the correlation between arrivals and prices was positive but non-significant. Trend analysis of arrivals of moth bean in Nagaur, Merta, Jodhpur and Jaipur markets showed decreasing trend (non-significant) except Jodhpur market where it was significant. However, the trend values of arrivals in Nokha market showed positive but non-significant trend over the years. During the peak period, the prices of moth bean are depressed. Therefore, government should enhance efforts in procurement of moth bean at MSP in the peak period. Farmers should also avail of marketing loans to withhold their produce for some time so that they can get remunerative price during mid period and lean period. Credit facilities should also be given to farmers under Gramin Bhandaran Yojana to have scientific storage facilities at village level.

Perception of the Tribal Farmers towards KVK Training

KVK as an innovative institution imparting skill training on agriculture and allied vocations for the farmers, farm women, rural youth and school drop outs for generating income and self employment. A study has been conducted with fifty tribal farmers in Dhanakauda block of sambalpur district in Odisha during 2012 to assess their perception towards KVK training programmes. It has been observed that appropriate selection of trainees, content addressing the local needs, easily understandable, immediate use and emphasis on skill up-gradation. Group discussion and exercise, encouraging interaction, circulation of reference materials and more audio-visuals are to be used while conducting training. Long duration training programmes of one week to one month has to be organized for rural youth during lean period and duration to be fixed as per the lesson plan formulated. Clear understanding and confidence over the message, liasoning for the availability of inputs, credit and market support along with well furnished hostel with library facilities and enhancement of meals for training to motivate tribal farmers to attend KVK training.

Circular Migration and Human Mobility – An Observation

The paper tries to focus on circular migration concept from developmental point of view. People are expected to move from one place to other when they found some favourable circumstances for living, especially during agricultural lean period when their level of income decreases. It is generally believed that only those people opting for circular migration who have a very strong bonding with their own place. This bonding has some social significance as well as economic impact also. The process also helps them to acquire knowledge which they can utilize in their own place provided adequate infrastructure and support activities are available. Thus, to make this type of movement economically viable from the society’s point of view, government should involve in keeping this movement restricted within migrant’s own place by creating desired infrastructure support. Otherwise chances are there that this movement may become permanent one and will create pressure on urban economy. DOI: 10.5901/mjss.2015.v6n1s1p133

New Insights into the N2O Formation Mechanism over Pt-BaO/Al2O3 Model Catalysts Using H2 As a Reductant

The N2O formation mechanism was investigated over a Pt-BaO/Al2O3 catalyst applied on light-duty diesel vehicles using H2 as a reductant in the absence and presence of H2O. In the absence of H2O, N2O forms mainly at the initial phase of lean NOx trapping; while in the presence of H2O, N2O appears mainly at the beginning of the rich reduction phase. In the lean period, N2O is formed via the gaseous NO/O2 reacting with the adsorbed H and NH3 that are formed during the previous rich period. The N2O formation in the rich period is insignificant in the absence of H2O but is greatly enhanced by the presence of H2O. The amount of N2O formed is proportional to the H2O level in the feed, and its formation is favored at low temperatures. Our FTIR data show that H2O enhances the rate of nitrite/nitrate reduction during the rich regeneration, which increases the amount of released NOx, an oxygen source for N2O formation. Our temperature-programmed experiments indicate that H2O competes with NH3 for adsorption sites on Pt surface. This competitive adsorption may increase the NH3 desorption rate at low temperatures in the rich phase and make Pt surface more accessible to NO.

U.S. Spanish-Language Television Management during the Industry’s First 50 Years

Many people were stunned to learn the Spanish-language television network Univision was the highest rated in prime time among all U.S. networks in July 2013, a feat it repeated a year later. Steady growth of its demographic and advertising bases, combined with astute management, has brought success to this dynamic industry sector. However, the boom years were preceded by several decades of formidable challenges and lean periods. This article exa mines the principal technological, programming, financial and competitive obstacles network management faced from the 1970s to the 2000s, illustrating the variety of fronts on which ethnic-oriented media leaders maneuvered during a period of rapid population growth and industry transformation.

India's Sweeping Regulatory and Policy Changes: Heralding a New Era in Investor Protection in M&A Transactions?

Strategic and financial investors often look to grow their asset-base by investing in jurisdictions having the best potential for economic development. In most instances they prefer countries that offer adequate protection for their investments and, certainty and clarity in relation thereto. Investors look for legal transparency and precision, and require the existence of mechanisms in a country’s commercial law that safeguard their interests, regardless of the size of such investor’s holding in a company.A significant number of India’s most successful companies today continue to be closely held and controlled by a select few of India’s most powerful business families. While such companies do invite foreign stakeholders to invest as minority shareholders, the companies expect the day-to-day management to be left with their Indian controllers. Historically, poorly drafted and disjointed Indian corporate and securities law has been one of the major causes of scarce foreign investment into India. In the aftermath of the global economic slowdown caused by the financial crisis of 2008, both the cross-border and domestic mergers and acquisitions (‘M&A’) spaces in India have witnessed relatively lean periods. However, after a somewhat dormant phase, recent times have seen a slew of policy and regulatory changes brought about by the Indian Government with myriad objectives and goals. Several of these modifications in the law suggest an overarching theme of improving the protection afforded to foreign investors in India and the creation of an M&A transactional atmosphere that is, in general, more conducive to augmenting inward fund flow and assisting in India’s inorganic growth. This article bases itself on a contemporary understanding of the expectations of foreign strategic and financial investor protection in India. It selects some of the most far reaching alterations in this area of Indian commercial law, brought about by the Indian Parliament, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), the Ministry of Corporate Affairs (MCA) and the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI). Constraints of space do not permit all of the changes introduced in recent times to be captured and analysed comprehensively. However, an attempt has been made to choose certain interrelated themes most favoured by foreign investors, and, according to the author, are likely to have the greatest impact on foreign investor protection in the coming years. The article tries to offer a critical analysis of whether or not the selected initiatives are likely to be noteworthy catalysts in boosting investor confidence and bolstering M&A in India.The article focuses on two perspectives: (a) expectations in corporate governance and (b) the law relating to the need of securities regulation. Under the corporate governance perspective, the author begins with an analysis of optionality clauses and entrenchment in investor agreements, before taking a deeper look at India’s recently amended law on related party transactions. The analysis here will evaluate specifically whether the manner in which the laws are framed in these areas truly translate into enhanced protection for foreign investors. Next, the article moves on to a broader perspective of securities regulation law, where it discusses significant and wide-ranging proposals for change in India’s insider trading law and the utility attached to the newly permitted foreign listings for Indian companies. Here the author also investigates changes in Indian securities law in the context of taking listed Indian companies private. Ultimately, using these two perspectives, the article tries to make a critical evaluation of the legal implications of each of the selected investor protection reform efforts, to weigh their apparent successes and failures. The article’s thesis is that several recent changes have significant positive potential, but require thoughtful reconsideration in parts in order actually to impact investor comfort. With this in mind, it concludes by offering a normative outlook on foreign investor protection in India’s evolving corporate legal space.

Shade Cum Fruit Yielding Avocado under Coffee Ecosystem

Avocado is one of the most commonly preferred shades grown tree crop under Coffee ecosystem. In view of that, Peninsula of Nicoya and Cost Rica farmer was rated avocado (Persea americana L. Mill) is a primary shade tree crop under coffee plantation at the level of 66.3 per cent and it ranked as a fourth position after the Inga spp., Guazumala ulmiflora and Cardia alliodoara. Hence, the avocado is a commercially important shade cum fruit yielding tree under coffee ecosystem which has cultivating both in humid tropic as well as subtropical climates of throughout the world. The tree is basically grown as the forest species but later on as a shade growing tree under coffee cultivation because of high nutritional and medicinal values of fruit and it makes for wider diversity. Thereafter it was entered into the other parts of the world from Central America and Mexico. The tree is of multipurpose in nature and also helps to avoid the soil and water erosion by way of its wider spread canopy. Generally, Avocado leafs reduce the beating action of rain drops which in-turn minimize the soil erosion. The soil enrichment by adding the leaf litter continuously is an advantage in the coffee plantations. It yields in the additional economic returns after three to five years of establishment. Hence, the establishment of shade tree under coffee ecosystem will give additional income to the coffee growers, which mainly helps on lean period of coffee cultivation.

Shade Cum Fruit Yielding Avocado under Coffee Ecosystem

Avocado is one of the most commonly preferred shades grown tree crop under Coffee ecosystem. In view of that, Peninsula of Nicoya and Cost Rica farmer was rated avocado (Persea americana L. Mill) is a primary shade tree crop under coffee plantation at the level of 66.3 per cent and it ranked as a fourth position after the Inga spp., Guazumala ulmiflora and Cardia alliodoara. Hence, the avocado is a commercially important shade cum fruit yielding tree under coffee ecosystem which has cultivating both in humid tropic as well as subtropical climates of throughout the world. The tree is basically grown as the forest species but later on as a shade growing tree under coffee cultivation because of high nutritional and medicinal values of fruit and it makes for wider diversity. Thereafter it was entered into the other parts of the world from Central America and Mexico. The tree is of multipurpose in nature and also helps to avoid the soil and water erosion by way of its wider spread canopy. Generally, Avocado leafs reduce the beating action of rain drops which in-turn minimize the soil erosion. The soil enrichment by adding the leaf litter continuously is an advantage in the coffee plantations. It yields in the additional economic returns after three to five years of establishment. Hence, the establishment of shade tree under coffee ecosystem will give additional income to the coffee growers, which mainly helps on lean period of coffee cultivation.

Pt/CexPr1−xO2 (x = 1 or 0.9) NOx storage–reduction (NSR) catalysts

Model Pt/Ce0.9Pr0.1O2 and Pt/CeO2 NOx storage–reduction catalysts were prepared via nitrate calcination, co-precipitation and carbon-templating routes. Raman spectroscopic data obtained on the catalysts indicated that the introduction of praseodymium into the ceria lattice increased the concentration of defect sites (vacancies), arising from the higher reducibility of the Pr4+ cation compared to Ce4+. For the Pr-promoted samples, H2-TPR profiles contained high temperature bulk reduction peaks which were less pronounced compared with their ceria analogs, indicating that the presence of praseodymium enhances oxygen mobility due to the creation of lattice defects. Under lean-rich cycling conditions, the cycle-averaged NOx conversion of the Pt/Ce0.9Pr0.1O2 samples was in each case substantially higher than that of the Pt/CeO2 analog, amounting to a difference of 10–15% in the absolute NOx conversion in some cases. According to DRIFTS data, a double role can be assigned to Pr doping; on the one hand, Pr accelerates the oxidation of adsorbed NOx species during the lean periods. On the other hand, Pr doping destabilizes the adsorbed NOx species during the rich periods, and the kinetics of nitrate decomposition are faster on Pt/Ce0.9Pr0.1O2, leading to improved catalyst regeneration. These results suggest that ceria-based mixed oxides incorporating Pr are promising materials for NOx storage–reduction catalysts intended for low temperature operation.

The role of hunting in village livelihoods in the Ashanti region, Ghana

The article describes the results of two surveys conducted in six villages in the Ashanti region of Ghana. The first was undertaken in August 2002 and the second during July 2004. A total of 468 hunters and non-hunters were surveyed using targeted and systematic interviewing techniques. The results indicate that hunting is an important contributor to total income in the villages, particularly for poorer households. We find some evidence that hunting increases during lean periods, especially for hunters in the household survey. Distance to Kumasi is a significant determinant of the number of animals sold on the market, and also influences the type of gear used for hunting. Compliance with wildlife laws, notably species restrictions and the closed season is low, particularly amongst professional hunters.

Employee engagement in the shipping industry: a study of engagement among Indian officers

Industries across the world have been battling the effects of the global economic slowdown, adopting strategies to remain competitive and viable. It has been realized that sustainable competitive advantage can only be created through the workforce, the people who are the organization. In order to get the best from employees so that they go the extra mile for the organization, they must be “engaged.” Employee engagement as a construct has become very popular in recent times as it has shown correlations with productivity, profitability, employee turnover, safety, absenteeism, etc. The shipping industry is also going through a lean period where efficiency of operations is becoming fundamental to survival. In such a scenario, the use of engagement practices, as practiced ashore, may greatly assist ship owners in developing an engaged, motivated, and dedicated work force. This paper analyses the drivers of engagement from a review of literature, identifies the drivers in shipping, and develops a questionnaire to measure engagement levels of Indian seagoing officers and compares this with levels reported from other industries. It explores whether engagement levels increase with tenure with the shipping company, as reported in literature, and whether senior officers are more engaged in their jobs as compared with junior officers. The drivers of engagement were found to be similar, but engagement levels were found to be much lower than reported in other industries. Additionally, engagement was negatively correlated with tenure, while senior officers were found to be marginally more engaged than junior officers.

Dietary variation and food hardness in sooty mangabeys (Cercocebus atys): implications for fallback foods and dental adaptation.

We present information on food hardness and monthly dietary changes in female sooty mangabeys (Cercocebus atys) in Tai Forest, Ivory Coast to reassess the hypothesis that thick molar enamel is parsimoniously interpreted as a response to consumption of hard foods during fallback periods. We demonstrate that the diet of sooty mangabeys varies seasonally, but that one food--Sacoglottis gabonensis--is the most frequently consumed food every month and year round. This food is the hardest item in the sooty diet. Given that this species has among the thickest enamel within the primate order, a plausible conclusion is that thick enamel in this taxon evolved not in response to seasonally critical function or fallback foods, but rather to the habitual, year round processing of a mechanically protected foodstuff. These data serve as a caution against de rigueur interpretations that reliance on fallback foods during lean periods primarily explains the evolution of thick enamel in primates.

Quantifying the future value of cacheable food using fox squirrels (sciurus niger)

Food caching allows foraging decisions to include both present and future food value. We developed and tested a conceptual framework for measuring animals’ perceptions of future vs. present food value. Fox squirrels (Sciurus niger) are well-known caching animals in North America. We measured giving-up densities (GUDs) of fox squirrels to test the following hypotheses: (1) all else equal, animals should prefer cacheable to non-cacheable foods, and (2) the option value of a cacheable food should change seasonally and be highest preceding lean periods. We presented squirrels with experimental food patches containing either shelled hazelnuts, hazelnuts with their shells intact (to affect cacheability) or both kinds. Our data support both hypotheses. Squirrels exploited food patches with cacheable nuts more thoroughly and left them at lower GUDs. The squirrels’ perception of the future value of hazelnuts with their shells intact was found to be 32% higher than their present value. GUDs also varied by season, fall > spring >winter > summer, likely corresponding to food availability. Season and food cacheability interacted to further determine GUDs. The difference in GUDs between cacheable and non-cacheable nuts varied similarly: fall > spring > winter > summer, likely corresponding to changing food availability, reproductive opportunities and pending energetic shortfalls.

Price behaviour of major vegetables in hill region of nepal: an econometric analysis

An attempt has been made to study the price behaviour of major vegetables in hill region of Nepal. The study is based on secondary data on wholesale monthly/weekly arrivals and prices for the period of 2000-01 to 2009-10. The seasonality in wholesale price was analyzed using multiplicative model; the Fourier analysis was used to analyze cyclical variation in wholesale prices and Autoregressive model to study the relationship between market arrival and price of vegetables in market of hill region of Nepal. It was found that during the post-harvest period, the wholesale price ruled very low while during the lean period, the prices were quite high which is due to seasonal and perishable nature of the vegetables. The entire vegetables registered the positive and increasing trend and periodicities of 2 to 3 years in the wholesale price of vegetables. The effect of lagged price on current wholesale price was positively significant and high in magnitude and significant negative response was observed for the relationship between wholesale price and market arrival for all the vegetables in the market of hill region. Therefore, improved market information system is a need of efficient vegetable markets in Nepal in order to enable farmers to make proper production and marketing decisions. Further, Government is required to create market infrastructure facilities like warehousing, processing, transportation, etc. for reducing the variation in prices of vegetables in the market of hill region of Nepal. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/sja.v10i2.18332 SAARC J. Agri., 10(2): 107-120 (2012)

Impact of participatory silvipastoral intervention and soil conservation measures for forage resource enhancement in western Himalaya

Livestock rearing is an important component of rural economy in mid-hills of Himalaya. Inspite of abundant available feed resources, total available biomass is insufficient to sustain the livestock population. Fodder trees particularly in hill ecosystem play an important role in supplementing the fodder requirement especially during the lean period. Information gathered and analysis concludes that Grewia optiva is the most important fodder tree in terms of dominance, palatability and increase in milk yield followed by Artocarpus chaplasha, Morus alba, Bauhinia variegata, Albizia lebbeck and Terminalia alata in Kangra and Mandi districts of Himachal Pradesh. The crude protein content was found highest in Grewia optiva (19.38%) followed by Albizia lebbeck (18.85%), Dendrocalamus hamiltonii (18.01%) and minimum in case of Quercus incana (9.27%). During scarcity of fodder Ficus religiosa is the only fodder tree fed throughout the year. The established silvipasture produced leaf biomass of 2.77 to 6.77 DM kg/tree (Ghanetta), 2.12 to 5.96 DM kg/tree (Jogindernagar) and 2.25 to 6.93 DM kg/tree (Dagoh). Fodder trees planted under silvipastoral system produced average biomass of 1.83 DM tonnes/ha (Ghanetta), 1.49 DM tonnes/ha (Jogindernagar) and 1.66 DM tonnes/ha (Dagoh). Rainfall events of more than 50 mm, though quite less in number (25/165, 24/192 and 17/149), contributed 47.7, 82.3 and 81.7% to the total runoff at Ghanetta, Jogindernagar and Dagoh, respectively. Among the resource conservation measures trenching in combination with vegetative barrier allowed only 8.2% of rain as runoff compared to 41.5% under control (no measure). The silvipasture systems coupled with contour staggered trenches and / or vegetative barrier can effectively arrest the environmental degradation.

A study of socio-economic profile of women agricultural labour in Punjab

The present study was undertaken to examine the socio-economic profile, employment and wages of women agricultural labour in Punjab. Multistage random sampling technique was used to form a representative sample of 96 women agricultural labour, covering six villages, three blocks and three districts from three agro-climatic zones of Punjab for analysis. The study revealed that majority of the women agricultural labourers belonged to Punjab while remaining one-third were the migrants mainly from the Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The mean age of women agricultural labour in Punjab was 33.29 years and most of them belonged to schedule caste. Majority of them were married, illiterate, having owned and pucca house and had belonged to the medium sized nuclear families. The mean family income of women agricultural labour came out to be around ‘63620 per annum whereas, mean wage income of a woman agricultural labour was ‘33242 per annum. It was observed that during the lean period, the wage rate was ‘171.67 per day while in the peak period it was ‘191.67 per day per woman in Punjab. The results revealed that during the lean and peak period, the wage income was ‘1924.30 and ‘3954.50 per month per woman respectively. The mean debt on the family of the respondents was ‘6666.67 and was mainly availed from non-institutional sources.