Lawrence System Research Articles

A Novel Hybrid Approach Based on Deep CNN Features to Detect Knee Osteoarthritis.

In the recent era, various diseases have severely affected the lifestyle of individuals, especially adults. Among these, bone diseases, including Knee Osteoarthritis (KOA), have a great impact on quality of life. KOA is a knee joint problem mainly produced due to decreased Articular Cartilage between femur and tibia bones, producing severe joint pain, effusion, joint movement constraints and gait anomalies. To address these issues, this study presents a novel KOA detection at early stages using deep learning-based feature extraction and classification. Firstly, the input X-ray images are preprocessed, and then the Region of Interest (ROI) is extracted through segmentation. Secondly, features are extracted from preprocessed X-ray images containing knee joint space width using hybrid feature descriptors such as Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) through Local Binary Patterns (LBP) and CNN using Histogram of oriented gradient (HOG). Low-level features are computed by HOG, while texture features are computed employing the LBP descriptor. Lastly, multi-class classifiers, that is, Support Vector Machine (SVM), Random Forest (RF), and K-Nearest Neighbour (KNN), are used for the classification of KOA according to the Kellgren–Lawrence (KL) system. The Kellgren–Lawrence system consists of Grade I, Grade II, Grade III, and Grade IV. Experimental evaluation is performed on various combinations of the proposed framework. The experimental results show that the HOG features descriptor provides approximately 97% accuracy for the early detection and classification of KOA for all four grades of KL.

On the sensitivity of food webs to multiple stressors.

Evaluating the effects of multiple stressors on ecosystems is becoming increasingly vital with global changes. The role of species interactions in propagating the effects of stressors, although widely acknowledged, has yet to be formally explored. Here, we conceptualise how stressors propagate through food webs and explore how they affect simulated three-species motifs and food webs of the Canadian St.Lawrence System. We find that overlooking species interactions invariably underestimate the effects of stressors, and that synergistic and antagonistic effects through food webs are prevalent. We also find that interaction type influences a species' susceptibility to stressors; species in omnivory and tri-trophic food chain interactions in particular are sensitive and prone to synergistic and antagonistic effects. Finally, we find that apex predators were negatively affected and mesopredators benefited from the effects of stressors due to their trophic position in the St.Lawrence System, but that species sensitivity is dependent on food web structure. In conceptualising the effects of multiple stressors on food webs, we bring theory closer to practice and show that considering the intricacies of ecological communities is key to assess the net effects of stressors on species.

Primary osteoarthritis of the knee joint and osteoporosis in postmenopausal females in a tertiary care hospital

Context: The relationship between osteoarthritis and osteoporosis in post-menopausal females is controversial. Western literature shows inverse relationship but Indian population is different. Aims: To investigate the association of primary osteoporosis with osteoarthritis of knee joint amongst post-menopausal females. Settings and Design: At tertiary care hospital A Cross sectional study for 75 post menopausal patients with osteoarthritis of knee joint visiting the orthopaedic OPD with chief complaints of pain and stiffness of knee joint were screened for grade of osteoarthritis on x-ray and BMD. Methods and Material: A cross-sectional observational study was carried out on 75 postmenopausal females with primary osteoarthritis of the knee joint. Grading was done according to the Kellgren and Lawrence system based on x-ray. The comparison of mean values of BMD among early-stage group(K/L group 1,2) and advanced group(K/L group 3,4) was performed. Statistical analysis used: The comparison of mean values of BMD among both groups were performed using one-way of analysis of variance(one way ANOVA). SPSS to 20.0 statistical software package was used. Results: The difference in BMD T score value in both groups was not significant. There were 16/38 patients with osteoporosis in early arthritis group (42.1%) whereas 15/37 patients in late arthritis group (40.54%). Conclusions: Osteoarthritis of knee joint is not protective against osteoporosis. There is no significant difference in bone mineral densitometry measurement between early and late osteoarthritis of knee joint.

Pore waters as a contributor to deep-water amino acids and to deep-water dissolved organic matter concentration and composition in estuarine and marine waters

Amino acids (AA), including the bacterial D-enantiomers (D-AA), and bacterial muramic acid were quantified in bulk particulate and dissolved organic matter (POM and DOM) from the St. Lawrence system (Canada). These tools were used to reveal the origin of POM and DOM and their mechanisms of formation and transformation across the sediment-water interface. Results show that pore waters were much more enriched in DOM and AA (6 to 25 times) than deep waters. Pore waters are thus a source of DOM and AA (e.g., in proteins, peptides) to the sediment-water interface. AA represented 1.4 to 6.6% of bulk DOC in pore waters and thus most of the DOM compounds diffusing out of the sediments do not contain AA. Estimated AA pore water fluxes were between 32 and 141 μmol C m−2d−1 with lower values at the downstream locations. The correlations measured between AA concentrations in pore waters and deep waters, the compositional similarities between pore water DOM and deep-water DOM and their relatively altered state (measured with different diagenetic markers) suggest that a large fraction of the DOM released from the pore waters, including some AA-containing compounds, is not rapidly mineralized in the water column. Pore water DOM and deep-water DOM were the two sample types having the most similar composition when 31 parameters were considered. This similarity steadily increases downstream. Local conditions, such as POM inputs, redox conditions, and sediment mineralogy, seem to control the sediment's capacity for producing pore water AA and DOM. The C-normalized yields of the specific bacterial biomarkers and the correlations with AA yields suggest that bacteria are the major contributors to AA and to changes in POM and pore water DOM composition. In addition to the direct diffusion of altered and recalcitrant DOM out of the sediment, pore waters also provide less altered compounds, such as AA-containing structures, that can survive in the water column when the conditions are unfavorable to degradation (e.g., hypoxia) or be transformed into more recalcitrant DOM. This study suggests, based on different molecular and bulk parameters, that sediments have an important impact on the concentration and composition of the DOM persisting in deep waters.

Efficacy of Platelet-Rich Plasma on Pain and Function in the Treatment of Knee Osteoarthritis: A Prospective Cohort Study.

BackgroundOsteoarthritis (OA) is a degenerative disease commonly affecting the knee joints. It affects patients socially, psychologically and economically and rates of the disease have been increasing due to obesity and old age. Regardless of choosing a medically conservative approach, it is a challenge in the long term to provide OA patients efficient treatment with minimal side effects and long-term efficiency. Platelet-rich plasma (PRP) is a convenient, low-cost and affordable treatment technique used in treating knee OA with encouraging efficient and safe outcomes. In this study we will investigate the effect of PRP on knee OA.MethodsThis is a prospective cohort study involving 252 patients with different OA grades. The Kellgren and Lawrence (K&L) system was used in classifying the affected knee by degenerative cartilage lesions as well as early and severe OA. All patients with a diagnosis of knee OA were screened in every visit before the injection, the pain was assessed by the 0-10 Numeric Rating Scale (NRS), and knee range of motion including flexion and extension was assessed by goniometer. Follow-up appointments were done on three-month intervals for a total of three visits for evaluation. Injection of PRP was given to all the patients with a maximum of four injections. The results were evaluated statistically according to the total number of follow-up visits.ResultsIn grade II patients, the pain improved with the visits and the maximum improvement in flexion degree was noticed in patients who came for a total of three follow-up visits. In grade III patients, the most improvement in pain was in patients who came for three follow-up visits, while the most improvement in flexion degree was in patients who came for a total of two follow-up visits. Patients with grade IV who came for three follow-up visits showed the most improvement in pain and degree of flexion.ConclusionsIntra-articular injections gave significant pain and flexion improvement in grades II, III and IV in OA patients, especially with multiple injection in the short-term follow-up. As a result, recommendation of repeated multiple injections up to four times is efficient in providing long time relief in knee OA.

Future of Chondroprotectors in the Treatment of Degenerative Processes of Connective Tissue.

Osteoarthritis is one of the most common diseases of the connective tissue of the elderly. It was found that most epidemiological studies used the Kellgren and Lawrence system for classification of osteoarthritis, which indicates one of the 5 degrees (0–4) of osteoarthritis in various joints according to the radiographic atlas. It has been proven that chondroprotectors are represented by the following active substances: chondroitin sulfate, glucosamine sulfate or hydrochloride, hyaluronic acid, glycosaminoglycans, extraction preparations from animal or plant raw materials. The sources of raw materials for the manufacture of combined chondroprotectors are known, methods for their preparation and use are described. The main drugs on the chondroprotective market are presented. The effectiveness of their use for the treatment of osteoarthritis has been proven. It was found that preparations containing chondroitin sulfate have anti-inflammatory activity, affecting mainly the cellular component of inflammation, stimulate the synthesis of hyaluronic acid and proteoglycans. Methods of treating osteoarthritis using cell therapy (the use of readily available, highly proliferative, and multipotent mesenchymal stromal cells) are presented.

Characterizing Exposure to and Sharing Knowledge of Drivers of Environmental Change in the St. Lawrence System in Canada

The St. Lawrence is a vast and complex socio-ecological system providing a wealth of services sustaining numerous economic sectors. These ecosystems are subject to significant human pressures that overlap and potentially interact with climate driven environmental changes. Our objective in this paper is to systematically characterize the distribution and intensity of drivers in the St. Lawrence System. To do so, we launch eDrivers, an open knowledge platform gathering experts committed to structuring, standardizing and sharing knowledge on drivers in support of science and management. We gathered data on 22 coastal, climate, fisheries and marine traffic drivers through collaborations, existing environmental initiatives and open data portals. We show that few areas of the St. Lawrence are free of cumulative exposure. The Estuary, the Anticosti Gyre and coastal areas are particularly exposed, especially in the vicinity of urban centers. We identified 6 areas of distinct cumulative exposure regime that show that certain drivers typically co-occur in different regions of the St. Lawrence and that coastal areas are exposed to all driver types. Of particular concern are two threat complexes capturing most exposure hotspots that show the convergence of contrasting exposure regimes at the head of the Laurentian Channel. eDrivers was built on a series of guiding principles upholding existing data management and open science standards. We therefore expect it to evolve through time to address knowledge gaps and refine current driver layers. Ultimately, we believe that eDrivers represents a much needed solution that could radically influence broad scale research and management practices by increasing knowledge accessibility and interoperability.

Resistance Exercise and Knee Osteoarthritis

Resistance Exercise and Knee Osteoarthritis

Corrigendum to: Phylogeography of Neomysis americana (Crustacea, Mysida), focusing on the St. Lawrence system

Corrigendum to: Phylogeography of Neomysis americana (Crustacea, Mysida), focusing on the St. Lawrence system

Phylogeography of Neomysis americana (Crustacea, Mysida), focusing on the St. Lawrence system

AbstractSpecies characterized by low dispersal capacities, such as mysids, usually show evidence of genetic differentiation. Many mysids are broadly distributed and often show eurythermal and euryhaline traits. This study aimed to describe intraspecific genetic structure and the phylogeography of Neomysis americana, a key species of estuarine food webs in northwest Atlantic, using the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I gene. We sampled 26 populations across the St. Lawrence system (SLS) and two along the east coast of North America [Penobscot and Chesapeake Bay (CB)]. Sequencing of 420 individuals revealed three divergent (>3%) lineages (LA, LB, LC) across the sampling area suggesting that N. americana represents a cryptic species complex. The distribution of the lineages was geographically structured. LC occurred in the CB only, whereas LA and LB co-occurred along the SLS and Penobscot Bay. This suggests secondary contact after the last glacial maximum. In the SLS the lineage LA dominated the estuarine transition zone and the Gulf of St. Lawrence, whereas the lineage LB was prevalent in the lower St. Lawrence Estuary, potentially due to different eco-physiological preferences. These results might help to define reasonable entities for research and management.

Magnetic resonance imaging of patellofemoral osteoarthritis: intertester reliability and associations with knee pain and function.

We examined the intertester reliability of patellofemoral compartment (PFC) osteoarthritis (OA) severity using magnetic resonance images (MRI) and a modified Kellgren and Lawrence (K&L) system. Second, we determined if these grades were associated with clinical tests of PFC involvement or self-reported pain/difficulty with stair climbing. Third, we assessed the association between PFC OA severity and knee pain or disability, after accounting for potential confounders including tibiofemoral OA severity. We examined the 9-year Osteoarthritis Initiative data from 114 subjects in the year prior to undergoing knee arthroplasty. The weighted kappa (κw) was used to determine intertester reliability, and the Pearson chi-square was used to assess associations among PFC OA scores and clinical tests. Multiple regressions were used to determine independent associations between self-reported pain/function and PFC OA. Reliability was substantial (κw = 0.73 (SE = 0.05)). Chi-square associations between PFC OA severity and clinical tests were not significant (p > 0.05). Multiple regression models between PFC OA and self-reported pain or function scores were not significant (p > 0.05). MRI-based measures of PFC OA were highly reliable indicating that musculoskeletal radiologists can reliably grade the PFCs of subjects using MRI. The extent of PFC OA is not associated with either clinical tests of PFC involvement or activities associated with PFC pain in persons with moderate to severe symptomatic tibiofemoral and PFC OA.

Individual‐based modeling explains the contrasted seasonality in size, growth, and reproduction of the sympatric Arctic (Thysanoessa raschii) and Nordic krill (Meganyctiphanes norvegica) in the St. Lawrence Estuary, eastern Canada

AbstractThe Nordic krill Meganyctiphanes norvegica and Arctic krill Thysanoessa raschii both dominate the krill community within the Estuary and Gulf of St. Lawrence system where they are central forage species for its pelagic ecosystem. We developed a species‐specific physiological individual based model that implements the critical physiological processes of growth, molting, and reproduction of female adults as responses to environmental forcing. Key innovations of our approach were the decoupling between the molting schedule and growth, as well as considering two distinct sources of prey (phytoplankton and mesozooplankton). Our simulation results revealed that the details of the feeding process were critical for an accurate representation of the production dynamics of adult individuals from both species. Their specific feeding preferences on phytoplankton and mesozooplankton resulted in distinct species‐specific phenological patterns that reproduced observations. The present study highlights the importance of detailed knowledge of diet and feeding behavior of krill species to improve our understanding of population responses in a rapidly changing environment.

Early back-calculated size-at-age of Atlantic yellow eels sampled along ecological gradients in the Gironde and St. Lawrence hydrographical systems

An international sampling program investigating the causes of the decline of American eels (Anguilla rostrata) and European eels (Anguilla anguilla) in the St. Lawrence (Canada) and Gironde (France) rivers systems provided the opportunity to compare early growth of eels of each species among habitats using back-calculated size-at-age from 1 to 5 years old. Our study supports previous studies showing that the early back-calculated lengths of A. anguilla were higher in downstream and more saline Gironde system habitats than in the upstream fluvial section and provides a new indication that length at 1 year old is twice higher than that reported 10 years earlier. However, our data contradict the current paradigm for A. rostrata by providing evidence that early size-at-age of eels from the upstream St. Lawrence system, most distant from the spawning area, exceeds those of eels sampled downstream, at less distant sites in the estuarine section. Overall, these observations are consistent with the hypothesis that the observed spatial variations in early growth rate of yellow eels sampled in the St. Lawrence and Gironde systems are the consequence of processes occurring in the first year of age, such as genetic selection and (or) genetically dependent habitat choice.

The prognostic and diagnostic value of 18F-FDG PET/CT for assessment of symptomatic osteoarthritis.

The objective of this study was to assess the clinical significance of increased fluorine-18-fluorodeoxyglucose (F-FDG) uptake on PET/CT in joints for evaluation of symptomatic osteoarthritis (OA) and prediction of progression. In this prospective study, shoulder, hip, and knee joints were imaged in 65 patients undergoing routine F-FDG PET/CT imaging. Patients completed the Western Ontario and McMaster Universities Osteoarthritis Index (WOMAC) questionnaire to assess joint pain, stiffness, and physical function. Standardized uptake values (SUVs) were measured in hip, knee, acromioclavicular (AC), and glenohumeral (GH) joints. Scout PET/CT images were evaluated for OA using the Kellgren and Lawrence (K/L) system. Patients were followed-up for 5 years to determine the progression of OA on the basis of follow-up imaging or surgical intervention. SUV of knee (r=0.309, P=0.0003), hip (r=0.260, P=0.0027), AC (r=0.186, P=0.0313), and GH (r=0.191, P=0.0271) joints correlated with WOMAC overall scores. Furthermore, SUV of knee (r=0.410, P<0.0001), hip (r=0.203, P=0.0199), and AC (r=0.364, P<0.0001) joints correlated with K/L scores. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curves for SUV were 0.734 (knee), 0.678 (hip), 0.661 (AC), and 0.544 (GH) for symptomatic OA detection based on WOMAC overall z-score greater or equal to 2. Compared with K/L score [hazard ratio (HR)=0.798, P=0.5324], age (HR=0.992, P=0.8978), and WOMAC overall score (HR=1.089, P=0.1265), only SUV (HR=5.653, P=0.0229) was an independent predictor of OA progression in the knees. F-FDG PET/CT may be helpful with localization of painful abnormalities in the inflamed regions of the joints, which could potentially be used to direct individualized treatment in moderate and severe OA. Furthermore, SUV measurement on F-FDG PET/CT could serve as an inflammation activity index in the knees that may be predictive of outcomes and progression rate of OA.

Selection and Investigation of a Primate Model of Spontaneous Degenerative Knee Osteoarthritis, the Cynomolgus Monkey (Macaca Fascicularis)

BackgroundThe aim of this study was to identify a primate model of degenerative knee osteoarthritis (KOA) that may be more relevant for research studies on degenerative KOA in humans.Material/MethodsSixteen specific-pathogen-free (SPF) male cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) were divided into group A (n=8), an old group (22.0–25.3 years of age), and group B (n=8), a young group (3.0–5.2 years of age). For each primate, the behavior was observed, knee circumference was measured, knee joint X-rays were performed, and peripheral blood white blood cell (WBC) counts were measured, and the Kellgren and Lawrence (K-L) system was used for the classification of osteoarthritis. An enzyme-linked immunoassay (ELISA) was performed on knee joint fluid to measure levels of interleukin (IL)-1β, transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1, and matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)13. Changes in articular cartilage were evaluated using the Brittberg score and the Mankin histopathology grading score, respectively. Quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) and Western blot were used to measure the expression of the NOTCH3, JAG1, and ACAN genes in knee cartilage specimens, and the findings in the two groups of primates were compared.ResultsSeven old aged primates in group A were compared with group B, and showed significant differences in WBC count, synovial fluid IL-1β, TGF-β1, and MMP13 levels, expression levels of the NOTCH3, JAG1, and ACAN genes in knee cartilage specimens, and in the Brittberg and Mankin scores (all, P<0.05).ConclusionsCynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) might be a model for age-related degenerative KOA.

Lead Exposures and Osteoarthritis in Korean Adult Men and Women

Background/Aim: Lead (Pb) has been reported to affect bone and cartilage in animal models and human studies. However, few studies evaluated the association between Pb exposures and osteoarthritis in population. The aim of our study was to analyse the relationship between Pb exposures and osteoarthritis in Korean population. Methods: In this study, we used the data from Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination survey V (2010-2012). We evaluated subjects who were ≥ 50 years of age with radiological examinations on knees. The radiologic grade of osteoarthritis was assessed by Kellgren and Lawrence system. The blood Pb was analysed in 2388 subjects. The relationships between Pb and osteoarthritis was investigated using multiple logistic regression adjusting age, BMI, house income, education, smoking, alcohol drinking, physical activity, and occupation after stratification of sex. Results: For men, the OR for the third and highest quartile compared to the lowest of Pb was 2.34 (95% CI: 1.32, 4.14), and 1.90(95% CI: 1.09, 3.32) in men, and for women, the OR for the highest quartile compared to the lowest was 1.81(95% CI: 1.17, 2.77) after adjusting demographic factors. Conclusions: Our findings suggest that lead exposures were associated with radiological osteoarthritis in Korean adult men and women.

Time-resolved laser fluorescence spectroscopy of organic ligands by europium: Fluorescence quenching and lifetime properties

Time-resolved Laser Fluorescence Spectroscopy (TRLFS) has proved its usefulness in the fields of biophysics, life science and geochemistry to characterize the fluorescence probe molecule with its chemical environment. The purpose of this study is to demonstrate the applicability of this powerful technique combined with Steady-State (S-S) measurements. A multi-mode factor analysis, in particular CP/PARAFAC, was used to analyze the interaction between Europium (Eu) and Humic substances (HSs) extracted from Saint Lawrence Estuary in Canada. The Saint Lawrence system is a semi-enclosed water stream with connections to the Atlantic Ocean and is an excellent natural laboratory. CP/PARAFAC applied to fluorescence S-S data allows introspecting ligands–metal interactions and the one-site 1:1 modeling gives information about the stability constants. From the spectral signatures and decay lifetimes data given by TRLFS, one can deduce the fluorescence quenching which modifies the fluorescence and discuss its mechanisms. Results indicated a relatively strong binding ability between europium and humic substances samples (LogK value varies from 3.38 to 5.08 at pH 7.00). Using the Stern-Volmer plot, it has been concluded that static and dynamic quenching takes places in the case of salicylic acid and europium interaction while for HSs interaction only a static quenching is observed.

To study the efficacy of Rhus tox in management of cases of osteoarthritis of knee joint

&lt;p class="abstract"&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background:&lt;/strong&gt; Arthritis and rheumatism are among the commonest forms of chronic disease and, with an aging population, are set to become commoner still. Strictly speaking, arthritis means disease of the joints, while rheumatism is disease of the soft connective tissues which support and move the joints. There are many problems with current conventional treatment of arthritis and rheumatism. Although the new generation of NSAIDs is safer, they are only glorified painkillers, which do not affect the basic disease process. Similarly for rheumatoid arthritis, a range of powerful drugs is available but all of these have long and alarming lists of side effects. Thus the main aim of this research study is to prove the efficacy of Homoeopathy in managing cases of Osteoarthritis without any side-effects&lt;span lang="EN-IN"&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class="abstract"&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Methods:&lt;/strong&gt; 30 cases were selected fitting the case definition. Age group of 45-79 years was chosen for the study. Inclusion and exclusion criteria were laid down. Western Ontario and McMaster Universities Osteoarthritis Index (WOMAC) and &lt;strong&gt;Kellgren and Lawrence system&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span class="apple-converted-space"&gt; of&lt;/span&gt; classifying the severity of knee-osteoarthritis&lt;strong&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;were used to assess the severity and outcome.&lt;strong&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class="abstract"&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Results:&lt;/strong&gt; All the results were tabulated. Graphical presentation was made of all the observations. Scores before and after treatment was compared. It was found that there was vast difference in scores before and after treatment&lt;span lang="EN-IN"&gt;. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class="abstract"&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Conclusions:&lt;/strong&gt; Rhus tox was found to be effective in managing cases of Osteoarthritis of Knee Joint&lt;span lang="EN-IN"&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

State of emerging technologies for assessing aquatic condition in the Great Lakes - St. Lawrence River system

Abstract A survey of institutions that operate emerging technologies used to monitor water quality and environmental conditions in the Great Lakes - St. Lawrence system was conducted in 2015. Data were summarized with the aim to provide insight into the current status of these aquatic environment observing systems at a time when these technologies are recognized to have great value but full implementation of observing systems is not yet in place. Fifty-three emerging technology observing platforms were described; over half of the systems were operated by institutions with multiple systems. Most emerging technology operators were from academic institutions and the largest (most expensive) emerging technology observing platforms were operated by government agencies. Physical properties were the most common water qualities measured. Lake Erie had the greatest number of emerging technology platforms making observations whereas the rivers connecting and draining the system had the least. Most observations were made in ice-free seasons. Data from these observing platforms were primarily used for sharing with other end-users. Emerging technologies can help resource managers make more informed decisions to meet the objectives of the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement and improve dissemination of public information. Technological and non-technological innovation is necessary for successful establishment of cost-effective system-wide observatory that can support bi-national obligations to monitor ecosystem restoration and protect water quality throughout the Great Lakes system.

From boundary waters to watersheds: Legal change and the geography of the Great Lakes‐St. Lawrence system

Key Messages The legal framework applicable to the geography of the Great Lakes‐St. Lawrence has evolved. At the time of the Boundary Waters Treaty a linear, boundary‐oriented perspective prevailed. Following the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement of 1972, the introduction of basin‐ and ecosystem‐oriented approaches altered the legal framework for the Great Lakes‐St. Lawrence system.