Lattice Preferred Orientation Research Articles

Anisotropy of self-diffusion in forsterite grain boundaries derived from molecular dynamics simulations

Diffusion rates and associated deformation behaviour in olivine have been subjected to many studies, due to the major abundance of this mineral group in the Earth’s upper mantle. However, grain boundary (GB) transport studies yield controversial results. The relation between transport rate, energy, and geometry of individual GBs is the key to understand transport in aggregates with lattice preferred orientation that favours the presence and/or alignment of specific GBs over random ones in an undeformed rock. In this contribution, we perform classical molecular dynamics simulations of a series of symmetric and one asymmetric tilt GBs of $$\hbox {Mg}_2\hbox {SiO}_4$$ forsterite, ranging from 9.58° to 90° in misorientation and varying surface termination. Our emphasis lies on unravelling structural characteristics of high- and low-angle grain boundaries and how the atomic structure influences grain boundary excess volume and self-diffusion processes. To obtain diffusion rates for different GB geometries, we equilibrate the respective systems at ambient pressure and temperatures from 1900 to 2200 K and trace their evolution for run durations of at least 1000 ps. We then calculate the mean square displacement of the different atomic species within the GB interface to estimate self-diffusion coefficients in the individual systems. Grain boundary diffusion coefficients for Mg, Si and O range from $$10^{-18}$$ to $$10^{-21}\,\hbox {m}^3$$ /s, falling in line with extrapolations from lower temperature experimental data. Our data indicate that higher GB excess volumes enable faster diffusion within the GB. Finally, we discuss two types of transport mechanisms that may be distinguished in low- and high-angle GBs.

Structural and kinematic analyses of the basement window within the hinterland fold-and-thrust belt of the Zagros orogen, Iran

AbstractThe Zagros hinterland fold-and-thrust belt is located in the central portion of the Zagros Thrust System and consists of the exhumed basement windows associated with NW-striking and NE-dipping flexural duplex structures that contain in-sequence thrusting and related folds. Mylonitic nappes of the basement were exhumed along deep-seated sole thrusts of the Zagros Thrust System. Lattice preferred orientation (LPO) c-axes of quartz show asymmetric type-1 crossed girdles that demonstrate a non-coaxial deformation under plane strain conditions. Based on the opening angles of quartz c-axis fabric skeletons, deformation temperatures vary from 425±50°C to 540±50°C, indicating amphibolite facies conditions. The estimated mean kinematic vorticity evaluated from quartz c-axis of the quartzo-feldspathic mylonites (Wm = 0.55±0.06) indicates the degree of non-coaxiality during mylonite exhumation. The estimated angle θ between the maximum instantaneous strain axis (ISA1) and the transpressional zone boundary is 17°, and the angle of oblique convergence is 57° in the M2 nappe of the basement involved. This indicates that the mylonitic nappe was formed by a combination of 62% pure shear and 38% simple shear during oblique convergence.

Deformation history of Pinatubo peridotite xenoliths: constraints from microstructural observation and determination of olivine slip systems

The deformation history of the Pinatubo peridotite xenoliths was estimated on the basis of the microstructural observations and the determination of olivine slip systems. The latter was performed by using three methods: lattice-preferred orientation (LPO), crystallographic analysis of subgrain boundaries, and direct characterization of dislocations. The Pinatubo peridotites are composed of coarse olivine grains containing numerous fluid inclusions and some fine aggregates of orthopyroxene and amphibole grains, which implies intense fluid–rock interaction. The development of euhedral fine recrystallized olivine grains along the healed cracks within the coarse olivine grains suggests that the strain-free grains were nucleated and grew during static recovery. The LPO patterns and the analyses of subgrain boundaries indicate the activation of a [100]{0kl} slip system that developed under high temperature, low pressure, and dry deformation conditions. Although dislocations showing the [100]{0kl} slip system are dominantly observed, the other slip systems which could be formed by the deformation under moderate–high water content and lower-temperature conditions are also developed. The discrepancy between the results of dislocation characterization and the other two methods might have been caused by fulfilling the von Mises criterion or overprinting dislocation microstructures. Either way, the possible deformation history of the Pinatubo peridotites can be explained by the following scenario. The peridotites plastically moved from the back-arc to the fore-arc adjacent region, where CO2-rich saline fluid was trapped, by the corner flow of a mantle wedge. They were then annealed and metasomatized during entrapment of the upwelling magma.

Investigation of mantle kinematics beneath the Hellenic-subduction zone with teleseismic direct shear waves

The subduction and roll-back of the African plate beneath the Eurasian plate along the arcuate Hellenic trench is the dominant geodynamic process in the Aegean and western Anatolia. Mantle flow and lithospheric kinematics in this region can potentially be understood better by mapping seismic anisotropy. This study uses direct shear-wave splitting measurements based on the Reference Station Technique in the southern Aegean Sea to reveal seismic anisotropy in the mantle. The technique overcomes possible contamination from source-side anisotropy on direct S-wave signals recorded at a station pair by maximizing the correlation between the seismic traces at reference and target stations after correcting the reference stations for known receiver-side anisotropy and the target stations for arbitrary splitting parameters probed via a grid search. We obtained splitting parameters at 35 stations with good-quality S-wave signals extracted from 81 teleseismic events. Employing direct S-waves enabled more stable and reliable splitting measurements than previously possible, based on sparse SKS data at temporary stations, with one to five events for local SKS studies, compared with an average of 12 events for each station in this study. The fast polarization directions mostly show NNE-SSW orientation with splitting time delays between 1.15s and 1.62s. Two stations in the west close to the Hellenic Trench and one in the east show N-S oriented fast polarizations. In the back-arc region three stations exhibit NE-SW orientation. The overall fast polarization variations tend to be similar to those obtained from previous SKS splitting studies in the region but indicate a more consistent pattern, most likely due to the usage of a larger number of individual observations in direct S-wave derived splitting measurements. Splitting analysis on direct shear waves typically resulted in larger split time delays compared to previous studies, possibly because S-waves travel along a longer path in the same anisotropic structure. Considering the S-derived splitting measurements of this study together with earlier SKS and Rayleigh wave anisotropy modelling results we suggest that the very consistent direct S-derived fast shear wave directions can be explained by the lattice-preferred orientation of olivine in the asthenospheric mantle due to mantle flow induced by the roll-back of the slab. It is possible that a small contribution originated in the lower crust beneath the study region where anisotropic fabric might have formed in response to extension in the Miocene.

Direct shear of olivine single crystals

Knowledge of the strengths of the individual dislocation slip systems in olivine is fundamental to understanding the flow behavior and the development of lattice-preferred orientation in olivine-rich rocks. The most direct measurements of the strengths of individual slip systems are from triaxial compression experiments on olivine single crystals. However, such experiments only allow for determination of flow laws for two of the four dominant slip systems in olivine. In order to measure the strengths of the (001)[100] and (100)[001] slip systems independently, we performed deformation experiments on single crystals of San Carlos olivine in a direct shear geometry. Experiments were carried out at temperatures of 1000 ° to 1300 °C, a confining pressure of 300 MPa, shear stresses of 60 to 334 MPa, and resultant shear strain rates of 7.4 × 10−6 to 2.1 × 10−3 s−1. At high-temperature (≥1200 °C) and low-stress (≤200 MPa) conditions, the strain rate of crystals oriented for direct shear on either the (001)[100] or the (100)[001] slip system follows a power law relationship with stress, whereas at lower temperatures and higher stresses, strain rate depends exponentially on stress. The flow laws derived from the mechanical data in this study are consistent with a transition from the operation of a climb-controlled dislocation mechanism during power-law creep to the operation of a glide-controlled dislocation mechanism during exponential creep. In the climb-controlled regime, crystals oriented for shear on the (001)[100] slip system are weaker than crystals orientated for shear on the (100)[001] slip system. In contrast, in the glide-controlled regime the opposite is observed. Extrapolation of flow laws determined for crystals sheared in orientations favorable for slip on these two slip systems to upper mantle conditions reveals that the (001)[100] slip system is weaker at temperatures and stresses that are typical of the asthenospheric mantle, whereas the (100)[001] slip system is weaker at conditions typical of the lithospheric mantle. These observations demonstrate that the relative strength of the dislocation slip systems in olivine and, thus, the development of lattice-preferred orientation and anisotropic viscosity in olivine-rich rocks are strongly dependent upon temperature and stress.

Metamorphic P–T–t–d evolution of (U)HP metabasites from the South Tianshan accretionary complex (NW China) — Implications for rock deformation during exhumation in a subduction channel

The late Carboniferous accretionary system of the South Tianshan orogen (North-Western China) underwent complex structural and polymetamorphic evolution. Combined petrological, geochronological and microstructural analysis of (ultra)high-pressure (UHP) metabasites (eclogites and blueschists) enclosed in metapelites show a relict coarse-grained eclogitic fabric S2 surrounded by a dominant fine-grained eclogite and blueschist facies retrograde fabric S2. The S2 fabric is reworked by upright folds F3 that are responsible for a major shortening of the whole accretionary system. For both the eclogite and blueschist, peak and retrograde P–T conditions have been thermodynamically constrained at 25–26kbar and 425–500°C and 10–13kbar and 500−550°C respectively, suggesting a shared exhumation history. The garnet-whole rock-amphibole isochron in the blueschist yielded Lu–Hf and Sm–Nd ages of 326.0±2.9Ma and 318.4±3.9Ma respectively, interpreted to date the prograde to peak metamorphic assemblage. The retrograde path of the eclogite is characterized by heterogeneous omphacite recrystallization into a mylonitic fine-grained matrix and crystallization of blue amphibole. Microstructures in both pristine porphyroclastic and recrystallized fine-grained domains in the eclogite indicate a gradual evolution from constriction-dominated (L>S-type) to flattening-dominated (S>L-type) type of deformation, increase of fabric intensity reflected by gradually growing M-indexes and the development of lattice preferred orientation (LPO) typical for dislocation creep under slightly hydrated conditions. Recrystallization of the matrix in the blueschist is homogeneous, which indicates a matrix dominated channel flow during exhumation. These LPOs evolutions suggest a significant mechanical coupling with the upper plate concomitant with oroclinal bending of the Kazakh orocline. Lock up of Kazakh orocline is responsible for further stress increase resulting in horizontal shortening of South Tianshan accretionary wedge and development of D3 upright folding and steepening of the whole sequence.

Microstructural evidence for the transition from dislocation creep to dislocation-accommodated grain boundary sliding in naturally deformed plagioclase

We use quantitative microstructural analysis including misorientation analysis based on electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) data to investigate deformation mechanisms of naturally deformed plagioclase in an amphibolite gabbro mylonite. The sample is from lower oceanic crust exposed near the Southwest Indian Ridge, and it has a high ratio of recrystallized matrix grains to porphyroclasts. Microstructures preserved in porphyroclasts suggest that early deformation was achieved principally by dislocation creep with subgrain rotation recrystallization; recrystallized grain (average diameter ∼8 μm) microstructures indicate that subsequent grain boundary sliding (GBS) was active in the continued deformation of the recrystallized matrix. The recrystallized matrix shows four-grain junctions, randomized misorientation axes, and a shift towards higher angles for neighbor-pair misorientations, all indicative of GBS. The matrix grains also exhibit a shape preferred orientation, a weak lattice preferred orientation consistent with slip on multiple slip systems, and intragrain microstructures indicative of dislocation movement. The combination of these microstructures suggest deformation by dislocation-accommodated GBS (DisGBS). Strain localization within the recrystallized matrix was promoted by a transition from grain size insensitive dislocation creep to grain size sensitive GBS, and sustained by the maintenance of a small grain size during superplasticity.

An experimental study on the brittle–plastic transition during deformation of granite

Naturally and experimentally deformed samples of granite show that the deformation mechanisms of plagioclase and K-feldspar are different. To investigate these mechanisms and the brittle–plastic transition that takes place in granitic rocks composed of quartz, plagioclase, and K-feldspar, five leucosome granite samples were deformed with a constant strain rate of 10−5s−1 at different temperatures from 850°C to 1050°C and confining pressure (CP) of 300MPa using a Paterson-type gas deformation apparatus. To consider pressure effects, two more samples were deformed at 950°C but with different CPs, one with CP=100kPa and the other with CP=100MPa. In addition, an eighth sample was deformed under torsion shear at 950°C with CP=400MPa. Microstructures of an undeformed sample and experimentally deformed samples were analyzed using an optical microscope and a scanning electron microscope. The granite is composed of about 36 volume percent quartz, ∼26% plagioclase, ∼34% microcline, ∼3% muscovite, and ∼1% chlorite.The stress–strain curves for all but two samples display weakening. The two exceptions are the sample that deformed with steady-state creep under a CP of 100MPa and the sample that displayed brittle fracture under a CP of 100kPa. For the other samples, peak strengths decreased with increasing temperature or lower CP. Microstructures show that samples underwent a brittle–plastic transition with increasing temperature. Samples fractured by cataclastic flow at 850°C with CP=300MPa and at 950°C with CP=100kPa. Microcline deformed by cataclastic flow at 900–1050°C with CP=100–400MPa accompanied by dislocation glide at temperatures of 1000°C and 1050°C. At 900–1050°C with CP=100–400MPa, plagioclase displayed bulging recrystallization and grain boundary migration recrystallization and quartz deformed by subgrain rotation recrystallization. Diffusion rims were observed between quartz, plagioclase, and microcline grain boundaries at 900–1050°C with CP=100–400MPa. Partial melting appeared around plagioclase, microcline, and quartz grains at 1000°C and 1050°C. Exsolution of albite from microcline took place in a sample deformed at 950°C and CP=100MPa. Electron backscatter diffraction analysis showed that quartz has a lattice preferred orientation in both undeformed and experimentally deformed samples. The basal 〈a〉 slip of the quartz c-axis was found in undeformed samples. The c-axis of quartz closes to the rhomb 〈a〉 slip with a secondary in the basal 〈a〉 slip in samples deformed at 900°C and 950°C with CP’s of 300MPa and 100MPa respectively. The c-axis of quartz changes to prism 〈a〉 slip in samples deformed at 950–1050°C with CP=300MPa and does the same for a sample deformed with torsion shear at 950°C with CP=400MPa.Microstructures show that plagioclase and microcline deform differently. Microcline is a strong phase compared with quartz and plagioclase. Therefore, microcline is important for the brittle–plastic transition in granitic rocks and the depth of that transition in the middle crust will be greater where the granitic rocks in the crust contain large amounts of microcline.

Lattice-Preferred orientations of olivine in subducting oceanic lithosphere derived from the observed seismic anisotropies in double seismic zones

Subduction zones can generally be classified into Mariana type and Chilean type depending on plate ages, plate thicknesses, subduction angles, back-arc deformation patterns, etc. The double seismic zones (DSZs) in subduction zones are mainly divided into type I and type II which, respectively, correspond to the Mariana type and Chilean type in most cases. Seismic anisotropy is an important parameter characterizing the geophysical features of the lithosphere, including the subduction zones, and can be described by the two parameters of delay time δt and fast wave polarization direction ϕ. We totally collected 524 seismic anisotropy data records from 24 DSZs and analyzed the statistical correlations between seismic anisotropy and the related physical parameters of DSZs. Our statistical analysis demonstrated that the fast wave polarization directions are parallel to the trench strike with no more than 30° for most type I DSZs, while being nearly perpendicular to the trench strike for type II DSZs. We also calculated roughly linear correlations that the delay time δt increases with dip angles but decreases with subduction rates. A linear equation was summarized to describe the strong correlation between DSZ’s subduction angle α DSZ and seismic anisotropy in subduction zones. These results suggest that the anisotropic structure of the subducting lithosphere can be described as a possible equivalent crystal similar to the olivine crystal with three mutually orthogonal polarization axes, of which the longest and the second axes are nearly along the trench-perpendicular and trench-parallel directions, respectively.

Full-field predictions of ice dynamic recrystallisation under simple shear conditions

Understanding the flow of ice on the microstructural scale is essential for improving our knowledge of large-scale ice dynamics, and thus our ability to predict future changes of ice sheets. Polar ice behaves anisotropically during flow, which can lead to strain localisation. In order to study how dynamic recrystallisation affects to strain localisation in deep levels of polar ice sheets, we present a series of numerical simulations of ice polycrystals deformed under simple-shear conditions. The models explicitly simulate the evolution of microstructures using a full-field approach, based on the coupling of a viscoplastic deformation code (VPFFT) with dynamic recrystallisation codes. The simulations provide new insights into the distribution of stress, strain rate and lattice orientation fields with progressive strain, up to a shear strain of three. Our simulations show how the recrystallisation processes have a strong influence on the resulting microstructure (grain size and shape), while the development of lattice preferred orientations (LPO) appears to be less affected. Activation of non-basal slip systems is enhanced by recrystallisation and induces a strain hardening behaviour up to the onset of strain localisation and strain weakening behaviour. Simulations demonstrate that the strong intrinsic anisotropy of ice crystals is transferred to the polycrystalline scale and results in the development of strain localisation bands than can be masked by grain boundary migration. Therefore, the finite-strain history is non-directly reflected by the final microstructure. Masked strain localisation can be recognised in ice cores, such as the EDML, from the presence of stepped boundaries, microshear and grains with zig-zag geometries.

Deformation in the mantle wedge associated with Laramide flat‐slab subduction

AbstractLaramide crustal deformation in the Rocky Mountains of the west‐central United States is often considered to relate to a narrow segment of shallow subduction of the Farallon slab, but there is no consensus as to how deformation along the slab‐mantle lithosphere interface was accommodated. Here we investigate deformation in mantle rocks associated with hydration and shear above the flat‐slab at its contact with the base of the North American plate. The rocks we focus on are deformed, hydrated, ultramafic inclusions hosted within diatremes of the Navajo Volcanic Field in the central Colorado Plateau that erupted during the waning stages of the Laramide orogeny. We document a range of deformation textures, including granular peridotites, porphyroclastic peridotites, mylonites, and cataclasites, which we interpret to reflect different proximities to a slab‐mantle‐interface shear zone. Mineral assemblages and chemistries constrain deformation to hydrous conditions in the temperature range ∼550–750°C. Despite the presence of hydrous phyllosilicates in modal percentages of up to 30%, deformation was dominated by dislocation creep in olivine. The mylonites exhibit an uncommon lattice preferred orientation (LPO) in olivine, known as B‐type LPO in which the a‐axes are aligned perpendicular to the flow direction. The low temperature, hydrated setting in which these fabrics formed is consistent with laboratory experiments that indicate B‐type LPOs form under conditions of high stress and high water contents; furthermore, the mantle wedge context of these LPOs is consistent with observations of trench‐parallel anisotropy in the mantle wedge above many modern subduction zones. Differential stress magnitudes in the mylonitic rocks estimated using paleopiezometry range from 290 to 444 MPa, and calculated effective viscosities using a wet olivine flow law are on the order of 1019−1023 Pa s. The high stress magnitudes, high effective viscosities, and high strains recorded in these rocks are consistent with models that invoke significant basal shear tractions as contributing to Laramide uplift and contraction in the continental interior.

Ductile deformation and its geological implications for retrograded eclogites from the Hongqiyingzi Complex in Chicheng, northern Hebei, China

The rheology of rocks at depth remains a key point in earth sciences. Deformation of high-temperature–high-pressure rocks from the subduction zone has not been fully studied; in particular, the deformation behavior of eclogites remains poorly understood. This research is focused on the microstructure and fabric of retrograded eclogites from the Hongqiyingzi Complex in Chicheng, north Hebei, China, based on photomicrography, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and electron backscattered diffraction (EBSD) analysis. The analytical results show that plastic deformation occurred in the garnets during exhumation, but they do not show an obvious lattice preferred orientation (LPO). This can be interpreted as being caused by the simultaneous activation of multiple slip systems in the garnets during deformation by dislocation creep. The plagioclases have a special fabric; the (001) LPO presents a maximum in Z direction which can be correlated with a new [100](001) slip system. The misorientation angle distribution (MAD) of the plagioclases in the deformed retrograded garnet augens shows a special bimodal distribution with peaks in both a low-angle range ( 140°). In the retrograded garnet augens (i.e. “white eye socket” garnets) the maximum peak moves from a high-angle range to a low-angle range when we analyze only those plagioclases surrounding the residual garnet porphyroclast. Deformation behavior is controlled by the crystallographic orientation of the host grain and the grain boundary sliding process. Hornblendes in different layers and the retrograded garnet augens show almost the same strong LPO patterns, which are correlated with the [001](010) slip system; and MAD diagrams show a peak in a low-angle range (<40°). Integrating recent studies on metamorphism and geochronology, we argue that ductile deformation occurred during the exhumation periods together with retrograded metamorphism.

Recrystallisation, phase mixing and strain localisation in peridotite during rapid extrusion of sub-arc mantle lithosphere

The Anita Peridotite, in southwestern New Zealand, is a ∼1 × 20 km ultramafic massif that was rapidly extruded from beneath a Cretaceous arc within the 4 km wide mylonitic Anita Shear Zone. The peridotitic body contains a spectacular array of textures that preserve evidence for changing temperature, stress, and deformation mechanisms during the exhumation process. Olivine and orthopyroxene microstructures and lattice-preferred orientations (LPO) record a three-phase deformation history. Dislocation glide on the C- and E-type slip systems is recorded by coarse pre-mylonitised olivine grains, and occurred under hydrous conditions at T ∼650 °C, stress ∼200–700 MPa and strain rate ∼10−15 s−1, probably within hydrated sub-arc mantle lithosphere. Rare protomylonite pods record deformation by dislocation creep in porphyroclasts and dislocation-accommodated grain boundary sliding in the matrix on {0kl}[100] in olivine and (100)[001] in orthopyroxene, under conditions of T ∼730–770 °C, stress ∼52–700 MPa and strain rate ∼10−15 s−1. The massif, however, is dominated by mylonite and ultramylonite that wrap the protomylonite pods, comprising mostly fine-grained olivine neoblasts that lack internal distortions and have uniform LPOs. These textures indicate deformation occurred by grain-size sensitive (GSS) creep at T ∼650 °C, stress ∼69–137 MPa and strain rate ∼10−15 s−1, and thus during conditions of cooling and decreasing stress. GSS creep became more dominant with time, as the proportion of randomly-oriented neoblasts increased and formed interlinked networks that accommodated much of the strain. Grain boundary pinning allowed GSS creep to be maintained in polyphase regions, following mixing of olivine and orthopyroxene, which may have occurred by grain boundary transport in a fluid phase during a “creep cavitation” process. The results indicate that the Anita Peridotite recrystallised and underwent rheological weakening at a constant strain rate, with strain distributed across the entire section. This widespread deformation caused rapid exhumation of the peridotite from the lithospheric mantle into the overlying arc crust. The massif therefore records multiple overprinting phases of deformation under mantle and crustal conditions associated with the rapid exhumation of a large orogenic peridotite.

Textures in deforming forsterite aggregates up to 8 GPa and 1673 K

We report results from axisymmetric deformation experiments carried out on forsterite aggregates in the deformation-DIA apparatus, at upper mantle pressures and temperatures (3.1–8.1 GPa, 1373–1673 K). We quantified the resulting lattice preferred orientations (LPO) and compare experimental observations with results from micromechanical modeling (viscoplastic second-order self-consistent model—SO). Up to 6 GPa (~185-km depth in the Earth), we observe a marked LPO consistent with a dominant slip in the (010) plane with one observation of a dominant [100] direction, suggesting that [100](010) slip system was strongly activated. At higher pressures (deeper depth), the LPO becomes less marked and more complex with no evidence of a dominant slip system, which we attribute to the activation of several concurrent slip systems. These results are consistent with the pressure-induced transition in the dominant slip system previously reported for olivine and forsterite. They are also consistent with the decrease in the seismic anisotropy amplitude observed in the Earth’s mantle at depth greater than ~200 km.

Dynamic recrystallisation of ice aggregates during co-axial viscoplastic deformation: a numerical approach

ABSTRACTResults of numerical simulations of co-axial deformation of pure ice up to high-strain, combining full-field modelling with recrystallisation are presented. Grain size and lattice preferred orientation analysis and comparisons between simulations at different strain-rates show how recrystallisation has a major effect on the microstructure, developing larger and equi-dimensional grains, but a relatively minor effect on the development of a preferred orientation of c-axes. Although c-axis distributions do not vary much, recrystallisation appears to have a distinct effect on the relative activities of slip systems, activating the pyramidal slip system and affecting the distribution of a-axes. The simulations reveal that the survival probability of individual grains is strongly related to the initial grain size, but only weakly dependent on hard or soft orientations with respect to the flow field. Dynamic recrystallisation reduces initial hardening, which is followed by a steady state characteristic of pure-shear deformation.

CrN thin films deposited by HiPIMS in DOMS mode

Abstract It is well known that increasing the energy of the bombardment species, whether by using a bias or an additional ion source in direct current magnetron sputtering (DCMS) or by optimizing the deposition conditions in mid-frequency bipolar magnetron sputtering, enables us to tailor the properties of the CrN thin films. In the last fifteen years, several magnetron sputtering deposition methods have been developed which have aimed to produce highly ionized fluxes of sputtered material, thus enabling increased control over the energy and impinging angle distributions of the bombarding species. In this study, CrN thin films were deposited by deep oscillation magnetron sputtering (DOMS), a variant of High-power Impulse Magnetron Sputtering (HiPIMS), in order to study the effect of the additional control of the energetic ion bombardment on the film properties. The structural properties of the CrN films (lattice parameter and preferred orientation) showed that an intense energetic bombardment is always present in the DOMS deposition irrespective of the deposition conditions. This energetic bombardment was attributed to energetic N neutrals which are reflected at the target surface upon impingement of N2+ ions. A change from a columnar growth mode to a featureless one was observed with an increasing peak power at both 0.3 and 0.7 Pa. At the same time, the hardness of the films increased from 21–22 GPa to 28–29 GPa. This transformation was attributed to the increasing fraction of ionized sputtered species with increasing peak power. The columnar growth is interrupted by preventing the shadowing effect, i.e., due to the higher ionization fraction at higher pressure and/or peak power, rather than by overcoming the shadowing effect by using more energetic bombardment.

P wave velocity structure below India and Tibet incorporating anisotropic delay time effects

AbstractWe incorporate the effects of anisotropy to refine the continental‐scale 3‐D isotropic velocity model previously produced for India and Tibet by inverting 52,050 teleseismic P wave residuals. We have exploited a total of 1648 individual SKS splitting parameters to calculate the P wave travel time corrections due to azimuthal anisotropy. Our results suggest that anisotropy affects the P wave delays significantly (−0.3 to +0.5 s). Integration of these corrections into the 3‐D modeling is achieved in two ways: (a) a priori adjustment to the delay time vector and (b) inverting only for anisotropic delays by introducing strong damping above 80 km and below 360 km depths and then subtracting the obtained anisotropic artifact image from the isotropic image, to get the corrected image. Under the assumption of azimuthal anisotropy resulting from lattice preferred orientation (LPO) alignment due to horizontal flow, the bias in isotropic P wave tomographic images is clear. The anisotropy corrected velocity perturbations are in the range of ±1.2% at depths of around 150 km and reduced further at deeper levels. Although the bias due to anisotropy does not affect the gross features, it does introduce certain artifacts at deeper levels.

Determination of the stress conditions of the ductile-to-brittle regime along the Asuke Shear Zone, SW Japan

The stress conditions of the ductile-to-brittle regime have been assessed along the Asuke Shear Zone (ASZ), which strikes NE–SW in the Cretaceous Ryoke granite terrain in SW Japan. Along the ASZ, pseudotachylyte and mylonitized pseudotachylyte are locally developed together with cataclasite. The simultaneous operation of dislocation creep and grain-size-sensitive creep, as indicated by the coexistence of the Z-maximum and relatively random c-axis lattice preferred orientations as well as the sizes of dynamically recrystallized quartz grains (6.40–7.79 μm) in the mylonitized pseudotachylyte, suggest differential stresses of 110–130 MPa at ∼300 °C. The e-twin morphology, twinning ratio, and distribution of the glide direction on the e-twin plane of the twinned calcite in the amygdules of the pseudotachylyte suggest the stress conditions of the σ1 and σ3 axes trend 228° and 320° and plunge 55° and 1°, respectively, and indicate differential stresses of 40–80 MPa at 150–200 °C. Based on kinematic indicators in the fault rocks, the stress conditions estimated from calcite twins, and the cooling history of the granitic protolith, the ASZ is inferred to have been activated under a stress state that caused sinistral normal movements before and after pseudotachylyte formation at 70–50 Ma.

Calcite Twinning in the Ordovician Martinsburg Formation, Delaware Water Gap, New Jersey, USA: Implications for Cleavage Formation and Tectonic Shortening in the Appalachian Piedmont Province

A traverse across the Stone Church syncline in the Ordovician Martinsburg turbidites reveals an axial planar cleavage (N40°E, SE dips) in regional thrust-related folds (N40°E, shallow plunges) and five phases of sparry calcite. Calcite fillings are bedding-parallel, cleavage-parallel, and one vein set cross-cuts both earlier phases; the youngest calcite filling is a bedding-parallel fault gouge that crosscuts the cleavage and preserves top-down-to-the-southeast normal fault kinematics. Calcite veins unique to disharmonically-folded calcareous siltstones (Maxwell, 1962) were also analyzed. Stable isotopic analysis (O, C) of all of the calcite phases indicates a uniform fluid source (δ13C −2.0, δ18O −13.3 VPDB) and, potentially, a similar precipitation and mechanical twinning age. The twinning strains (n = 1341; average Δσ = −32 MPa; average ε1 = −2.9%) in the calcite suite are consistent with SE-NW thrust shortening, and sub-horizontal shortening perpendicular to evolving axial planar cleavage planes in the Stone Church syncline. Calcareous siltstone layers within the Martinsburg Fm. turbidites share concordant bedding planes and are unique, chemically (XRF), but folded and cleaved differently than the surrounding clay-rich Martinsburg turbidites. Neither sediment type yielded detrital zircons. Electron backscatter X-ray diffraction (EBSD) and calcite twinning results in a folded calcareous siltstone layer preserving a layer-normal SE-NW shortening strain and Lattice Preferred Orientation (LPO). Shortening axes for the five-phase calcite suite trends ~N40°W, consistent with tectonic transport associated with crystalline nappe emplacement of the Reading Prong within the Piedmont province.

Earth's oldest mantle fabrics indicate Eoarchaean subduction.

The extension of subduction processes into the Eoarchaean era (4.0–3.6 Ga) is controversial. The oldest reported terrestrial olivine, from two dunite lenses within the ∼3,720 Ma Isua supracrustal belt in Greenland, record a shape-preferred orientation of olivine crystals defining a weak foliation and a well-defined lattice-preferred orientation (LPO). [001] parallel to the maximum finite elongation direction and (010) perpendicular to the foliation plane define a B-type LPO. In the modern Earth such fabrics are associated with deformation of mantle rocks in the hanging wall of subduction systems; an interpretation supported by experiments. Here we show that the presence of B-type fabrics in the studied Isua dunites is consistent with a mantle origin and a supra-subduction mantle wedge setting, the latter supported by compositional data from nearby mafic rocks. Our results provide independent microstructural data consistent with the operation of Eoarchaean subduction and indicate that microstructural analyses of ancient ultramafic rocks provide a valuable record of Archaean geodynamics.