Later Roman Empire Research Articles

Church in the Late Roman Empire: the Current State of Research

Church in the Late Roman Empire: the Current State of Research

Caesar Constantius Gallus (351–354 AD) and His Military Policy at the Near East Provinces of the Late Roman Empire

The paper addresses the military-administrative activities of Constantius Gallus, a nephew of Emperor Constantius II (337–361), who administered the Late Roman Empire’s eastern provinces from 351 to 354 on behalf of Constantius II, holding the title of caesar. Constantius Gallus’ military policies in the east has been studied against the background of Greek and Latin sources along with the Talmudic texts written in Hebrew (in translations into modern Western European languages). This paper is aimed at the analysis of the main directions of Constantius Gallus’ military policy and his reform of the command structure of the troops stationed in the Roman provinces in the Near East in the period in question. This study allowed the author to clarify Constantius Gallus’ contribution to the general development of the Late Roman military organization in the eastern provinces of the Empire. The author has researched Constantius Gallus’ military polices by three topics: the struggle against the Persians in Syria and Mesopotamia; the military campaign against the rebellious Jews in Palestine; and the struggle against the Arab invaders into Arabia Petraea in 353. The research of these issues allows the author to conclude that, in his works, Constantius Gallus followed the separation of powers principle: he did not command the troops, neither he personally conducted military operations or interfered into the course of combat operations. He followed a simpler task of creating the mechanisms providing coordinated relations between commanders of expeditionary and frontier troops, coordinating joint actions of the commanders, and keeping conditions for effective collaboration of different kinds of troops.

Римська дипломатія у відносинах з Іраном у часи правління Юстиніана І (527-565)

У статті розкриваються особливості розвитку пізньоримської дипломатії Юстиніана І у відносинах з Сасанідським Іраном. Автор статті аналізує наступність дипломатичної традиції, що формувалась у Римській імперії від початку взаємодії з іранськими царями у ІІІ ст. Розглядається практика обміну посольствами у мирний і воєнний час, укладання угод та їх стандартні умови. Особлива увага приділяється ролі римських грошових субсидій, як стабілізаційного фактору у відносинах двох імперій. Автор також аналізує обставини укладання та зміст «Вічного миру» (532 р.) та «П’ятдесятилітнього миру» (562 р.).

Ograniczenia władzy prefektów praetorio w późnym Cesarstwie Rzymskim

<p>W późnym Cesarstwie Rzymskim prefekci <em>praetorio </em>należeli do najpotężniejszych i najbardziej wpływowych dygnitarzy. Jednak ich wysoka pozycja była ograniczona przez samego imperatora: cesarskie konstytucje (ustawy) i politykę personalną. Innym sposobem nadzoru nad prefektami była rywalizacja pomiędzy wysokimi rangą dygnitarzami. W przypadku prefektów <em>praetorio </em>ich najpoważniejszymi rywalami byli <em>magistri officiorum</em>. W niniejszym szkicu staram się pokazać jak prefekci <em>praetorio</em> i <em>magistri officiorum </em>rywalizowali o kontrolę nad pocztą publiczną (<em>cursus publicus</em>) i w jaki sposób <em>magister officiorum </em>kontrolował <em>officium </em>praefekta <em>praetorio</em>.</p>

El poblado fortificado de la Edad del Hierro de La Muela (Torrecuadrada de los Valles y Torrecuadradilla, Guadalajara)

This paper offers an approach to the first results of our archaeological investigations in the site of La Muela, a settlement situated on the high valley of the Tajuna river, in Guadalajara province (Easter Spanish plateau). This site was dug in 2017, and excavations gave a good stratigraphical record with representative remains: from an oldest phase, that we dated along the Late Bronze Age site according to sherds of fine ware decorated of Cogotas I type, to an Early Iron Age, behind a transitional period between them. This second period is recognized as a Proto-Celtiberian hill-fort, but it is from the 5th century BC when we found a small fortified village of Celtiberian culture, with wheel-made pottery painted in red, stone plinths rectangular houses and a big rampart, that was built with a masonry of good quality. The site was reoccupied along the Late Roman Empire.

Kasna antika: dekadencija ili „demokratizacija“ kulture?

In our age “without the emperor”, fascination with empires and with the emperor mystique continues. Take for witness Tolkien and his Return of the King, the third sequel of The Lord of the Rings, or the television serial Game of Thrones. In the background, of course, is the lingering memory of the decline and fall of the Roman Empire, “a revolution which is still felt by all nations of the world”, to quote Edward Gibbon. It comes as a surprise that in this dramatic moment of its history, in times marked by political, economic and spiritual crisis that shook the very foundations of the Empire during the 3rd century, historians and art historians have recognized the revival of plebeian culture (arte plebea, kleinbürgerliche Kultur). It was the Italian historian Santo Mazzarino, talking at the XI International Congress of the Historical Sciences in Stockholm in 1960, who introduced a new paradigm: the “democratization of culture”. In the light of the historical process in the late Roman Empire, when growing autocracy, bureaucracy, militarization and social tensions leave no doubt as to the real political character of the government, the new paradigm opened up fresh approaches to the phenomenon of decadence and decline of the Roman world. As such, it stands against traditional scenario of the “triumph of barbarism and Christianity”, which was made responsible for the fall of the Roman Empire and the eclipse of the classical civilization of ancient Greece and Rome. It is not by accident that the new paradigm appeared around the middle of the 20th century, at the time when European society itself underwent a kind of “democratization of culture”, faced with the phenomenon of mass culture and the need to find new ways of evaluating popular art. Today, more than anything else, the notion of “democratization of culture” in late Roman Empire forces us to acknowledge a disturbing correspondence between autocratic and populist forms of government. It may come as a shock to learn that the very emperors who went down in Roman history as villains and culprits (such as Caligula, Nero or Commodus), were sometimes considered the most “democratic” among Roman rulers. Do we need to feel certain unease at this historical parallel?

Aspects of seashore protection in the Late Roman empire


 
 
 The article contains brief considerations on the legal aspects of coastal protection in the period of the late Roman empire. The Roman authorities of the transmarine provinces were likely to face problems such as the smuggling of illegal goods or unwelcomed persons. The question is who was in fact responsible for the prevention of and fight against unlawful activities. There are only few constitutions which indirectly refer to this problem. The laws indicate that the responsibility burdened various types of officials. only one of them – custos litorum – seems to be strictly connected to the marine duties. The origins and com- petences of custodes litorum are however unclear and should be subject to further research.
 
 

Empresses, Queens, and Letters: Finding a ‘Female Voice’ in Late Antiquity?

Few texts assigned to the authorship of women survive from antiquity. By and large, this also holds true for the fifth and sixth centuries AD, which, as a historical period, saw the consolidation of Christianity as the dominant religion in the Mediterranean, the disintegration of the Roman empire and the emergence of non-Roman successor kingdoms in its Western territories. Still, these two centuries present a unique moment in the history of female writing, as a series of letters, composed under the name of female members of imperial or royal dynasties, remain from that time. All these letters are ‘political’ in the sense that they either deal with diplomatic negotiations between different political entities or are part of communications between rulers and subjects. Altogether, there are twenty-six letters of this type, nineteen of which were written in Latin, while seven are preserved in Greek, of which three may be translations from an original Latin composition. The letters originate from both the East and the West of the late Roman empire, as well as from Ostrogothic Italy and from Merovingian Gaul. They can be divided exactly into one half written under the name of late Roman imperial women and one half attributed to royal women of the mentioned kingdoms.

Konstantynopol nowym Heliopolis? Uwagi do „wizji” epoki konstantyńskiej w książce Rolfa Bergmeiera, Kaiser Konstantin und die wilden Jahre des Christentums. Die Legende vom ersten christlichen Kaiser, Aschaffenburg 2016 (zweite, korrigierte Auflage 2016), ss. 350.

This review paper focuses on Rolf Bergmaier’s book, which represents yet another contribution to the debate on the so-called Constantinian shift, a controversy which has engaged successive generations of historians of early Chris-tianity and late Roman Empire for over 150 years. Thus far, the available sources (texts and artefacts, including inscriptions, engraved gems and coins) enable historians to develop divergent visions of the Constantinian era, de-pending on sympathies and religious persuasion.

Festival-Culture and Christianity in the late Roman Empire —Focusing on the time of St. Ambrose

Festival-Culture and Christianity in the late Roman Empire —Focusing on the time of St. Ambrose

Unique Osteoid Osteoma of the Frontal Sinus from the Late Roman Empire

Varotto, Elena MA, PGD∗,†; Magro, Maria Teresa MA, PGD‡; Brancato, Rodolfo MA§; Lubritto, Carmine PhD||; Memeo, Lorenzo MD¶; Galassi, Francesco M. MD†,# Author Information

Philanthropy and places of care (xenodochia) in the late Roman empire, 350-600 CE

Hospitals and places of care in general are topics that have received little attention from historians of Late Antiquity. The scarcity of detailed studies, although explained by a proportional scarcity of primary sources, written or archaeological, seems unjustified. The study of places of care can be a good tool to assess changes in power relations in the Later Roman Empire, as well as a way of comprehending important features of the Late Antique landscape that affected the general population in a myriad of ways. Our research chiefly intends to learn how Byzantine places of care related to the social surroundigs from the fourth to the sixth centuries of the Common Era, while also aiming to understand internal aspects of these institutions, ranging from its healthcaring practices to the objectives of their members.

War, Food, Climate Change, and the Decline of the Roman Empire

War, Food, Climate Change, and the Decline of the Roman Empire

The Late Roman Empire’s and Byzantium’s Political Interests in the Pont Region

In the late antiquity Rome was compeled to give permanent attention to the barbarian peoples, because they seriously threatened the Roman state, and sometimes it was impossible to eliminate this threat with military force. The Romans tried to use diplomatic methods and to remove possible danger by strange hands. They led out their troops across the frontier very seldom. In the 4th — 6th centuries we know only one roman’s vindictive expedition against the Goths. The Romans used ancient principle of the foreign policy “divide et impera!”. They not only prevented the formation of alliances of tribes, but also set that tribes against each other. The contacts of the Roman Empire, and then Byzantium with the tribes and peoples of the Pontic region become direct, since there were no possible intermediaries in relations with the barbarians, and the vital interests of the state required an active foreign policy.

Food Supply and Military Mutiny in the Late Roman Empire

This paper approaches the subject of food supply in late Roman warfare from the perspective of military mutiny, with a view to highlighting the political importance of effective logistics for maintenance of troop loyalty and discipline. It begins by contextualizing the subject against earlier periods of Roman history, especially the Republic, when food shortage was an important contributory factor in a number of high-profile cases of military mutiny. Mutiny appears to have been less common during the Principate and the Late Empire, at least until the sixth and early seventh centuries, and when mutiny did occur, food shortage was rarely a factor. While this might seem an anti-climactic conclusion, the paper contends that it provides corroboration of the effectiveness and flexibility of army supply arrangements in the Late Empire. It discusses late Roman evidence for awareness of the dangers of food shortages for soldiers' allegiances and emphasizes how the important role of mobile field armies in the Late Empire placed particular pressures on arrangements for military food supply. The apparent lack of military mutinies arising from food shortages during the Late Empire therefore assumes greater significance than might at first seem to be the case.

Istria in the context of political and religious events in Northern Adriatic from the late fourth until the late sixth century

Owing to its geographical location, Istria was not directly exposed to the devasta- tion in the fourth and fifth centuries, when it avoided both the civil wars and the migratory movements accompanied by invasions of wandering barbarian tribes. After the victory of Christianity, newly created city elites, with the bishop at the helm, had, since the early fifth century, managed the construction activities in cities, primarily relating to monumental projects, which altered the physical appearance of the cityscape. Local peculiarities are often considered as one of the most import- ant factors both for the process of change and for the endurance of the preexist- ing values in political and religious life. Recent studies, however, suggest that the transformation of post-Roman cities was not exclusively a consequence of intense Christianization. The emergence of the new city elite was the result of a conscious effort by the representatives of state authorities. This phenomenon is noticeable as early as the Late Roman Empire and persisted during the times of the barbar- ian states of Odoacer and Theoderic. In Istria it is most evident during Byzantine reign when the intertwining of political and religious spheres is the clearly visible in post-classical urban centres. This phenomenon can be detected thanks to a greater number of written and material sources. The events that took place in the aftermath of the Byzantine-Gothic war and Justinianʼs reconquest of the former Arian regions between 535 and 555 were an intentional reaction of the Byzantine political and religious power centres. Their primary objective was the cleansing of the vestiges of the Arian heresy, followed by the construction of new Christian edifices. The spon- sors of these building projects were Justinian himself, then bishops, state officials and members of the aristocracy. Justinianʼs conquest of the territories of the Ostro- gothic Kingdom between the Alps and the Adriatic Sea – including Istria – caused not only social-political, but also religious-political changes. The transformation of Ravenna into a political power centre during the reign of Theoderic also marks a turning point for the historical development of Istria, although one should consider the situation on the peninsula before the onset of Byzantine rule, as well.

Polityka zachodnia cesarza Marcjana (450-457). Problem huński i jego wpływ na relacje między Cesarstwem Wschodnim a Zachodnim

The reign of Emperor Marcian came at the turning point in the history of the Late Roman Empire. The Empire struggled against the Hun and Vandal menace and an internal political crisis. The Western policy of Theodosius II, who attempt­ed to keep a close relationship between both parts of the Empire, turned out to be a failure, and led to numerous defeats against barbarians. After his death, the mili­tary faction, opposed to his policies, chose its own candidate, Marcian, a former officer in service of a powerful general Aspar. The Emperor conceived a new line of Western policy, especially opposing the demands of Attila, the king of Huns. Marcian was reluctant to get involved in the matters of the Western Roman Em­pire, however, in 452 he sent an auxiliary force to Valentinian III, as a part of an agreement with Aetius, who convinced the Emperor to abandon his claim to the Eastern throne. Marcian also saw the opportunity to weaken Attila, and attacked the dwellings of his warriors beyond the Danube. After the death of Aetius, the Emperor did not support the Western Roman Empire, even when Rome was threatened and eventually sacked by Vandals. The cautious and pragmatic policy of Marcian helped the Byzantium to regain its power, and it led to neutralization of the Hun menace. The Emperor however did not make an attempt to save the Western Roman Empire from its internal political struggle and the Vandal attacks.

AS NECRÓPOLES ROMANAS/VISIGÓTICAS DE MIROIÇO E ALCOITÃO (CASCAIS)

Dezoito sítios arqueológicos com cronologia datada do período romano / visigodo foram identificados entre 1880 e 2003 no município de Cascais. Duas das necrópoles encontradas foram escavadas em 1999 e 2001, localizando-se uma em Miroiço (Manique) e outra em Alcoitão. Na necrópole de Miroiço foram encontradas 33 sepulturas. Entre elas, havia um túmulo de incineração com uma cronologia arqueológica do Alto Império, enquanto as restantes datam de entre o Baixo Império e o período Visigótico ou, possivelmente, o período Islâmico. A necrópole de Alcoitão, escavada inicialmente por F. de Paula e Oliveira (1889) e, novamente, em 1999, na qual foram identificadas 37 sepulturas, foi utilizada desde o final do Império Romano até ao período visigodo.

Aristocracies in early medieval Italy, ca. 500–1000 CE

AbstractIn the 500 years after the political collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century CE, various new groups entered Italy, recasting the ranks of the wealthiest and most powerful individuals and local elites. In the social hierarchy of the late fifth century, Ostrogothic elite would exist in parallel with the late Roman aristocracy, while later arrivals—Lombards, Byzantines, and Franks, among others—would form entirely new aristocracies, bound primarily by local landownership and management, leaving behind the administrative apparatus of the late Roman Empire. Consequently, Italian aristocracies, especially at their highest levels, tended to reflect the conditions of their political systems through the tenth century, when changing pressures caused many family groups of the social and political elite to take on the qualities of hereditary nobility. This article traces the various developments of aristocracies, their composition, and contemporary definitions of dominant groups.

UMA CIDADE FASCINANTE, MAS VIOLENTA. A DESCRIÇÃO DE ALEXANDRIA NA EXPOSITIO TOTIUS MUNDI ET GENTIUM

Neste artigo, apresenta-se a tradução e o comentário da descrição de Alexandria na obra anónima Expositio Totius Mundi et Gentium. Texto relevante para o estudo da economia, da política e da sociedade do Império romano da Antiguidade Tardia, nele Alexandria surge caraterizada como uma cidade próspera e rica, fornecedora de provisões alimentares e de recursos exclusivos como o papiro, uma cidade de ciências e de homens sábios, uma cidade piedosa para com os deuses plurais aí cultuados. Apesar disso, uma cidade incompreensível, pois os Alexandrinos tendem à rebelião e ao conflito contra as autoridades legítimas. O nosso objetivo é, com a análise do texto e com o cotejo dos outros testemunhos relativos ao Egipto no séc. IV, apontar novos dados quanto à datação da composição do texto, esclarecendo as referências históricas nele aludidas.