Landscape Vulnerability Research Articles

Method and Practice for Integrated Water Landscapes Management: River Contracts for Resilient Territories and Communities Facing Climate Change

The negative impacts of climate change on natural and anthropic ecosystems have led to the increasingly urgent search for policies, strategies and tools able to counteract degradation and risk factors on vulnerable landscapes. Among these, the research activity refers to water landscapes as a specific field of study that represents a fundamental resource for human well-being. In consistency with the international policy framework on integrated water management, this contribution develops a case study analysis focused on River Contracts as innovative, voluntary and negotiated planning practices aimed at the reconstruction of territorial, social and ecological values, which broaden the boundaries of safeguarding by integrating protection actions with sustainable management and environmental regeneration and to restore the identity of places and local communities. The description and evaluation of an ongoing experience of River, Coast and Landscape Contracts, developed along the coast of the Lazio region, allows one to point out that the process method is successful in solving complex issues related to the management of the river basin while involving social actors in order to improve people’s knowledge of the territory, increase social awareness of risk conditions, and allow local communities to propose and implement shared solutions. The results of this territorial and multi-level governance method are therefore measured on their capacity to produce territorial, social and environmental resilience.

A service lens on cybersecurity continuity and management for organizations’ subsistence and growth

PurposeThis paper proposes a holistic, proactive and adaptive approach to cybersecurity from a service lens, given the continuously evolving cyber-attack techniques, threat and vulnerability landscape that often overshadow existing cybersecurity approaches.Design/methodology/approachThrough an extensive literature review of relevant concepts and analysis of existing cybersecurity frameworks, standards and best practices, a logical argument is made to produce a dynamic end-to-end cybersecurity service system model.FindingsCyberspace has provided great value for businesses and individuals. The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly motivated the move to cyberspace by organizations. However, the extension to cyberspace comes with additional risks as traditional protection techniques are insufficient and isolated, generally focused on an organization's perimeter with little attention to what is out there. More so, cyberattacks continue to grow in complexity creating overwhelming consequences. Existing cybersecurity approaches and best practices are limited in scope, and implementation strategies, differing in strength and focus, at different levels of granularity. Nevertheless, the need for a proactive, adaptive and responsive cybersecurity solution is recognized.Originality/valueThis paper presents a model that promises proactive, adaptive and responsive end-to-end cybersecurity. The proposed cybersecurity continuity and management model premised on a service system, leveraging on lessons learned from existing solutions, takes a holistic analytical view of service activities from source (service provider) to destination (Customer) to ensure end-to-end security, whether internally (within an organization) or externally.

Green fodder cultivation improves technical efficiency of dairy farmers in semi-arid tropics of central India: a micro-analysis.

This study assessed the impact of improved green fodder production activities on technical efficiency (TE) of dairy farmers in climate vulnerable landscapes of central India. We estimated stochastic production frontiers, considering potential self-selection bias stemming from both observable and unobservable factors in adoption of fodder interventions at farm level. The empirical results show that TE for treated group ranges from 0.55 to 0.59 and that for control ranges from 0.41 to 0.48, depending on how biases are controlled. Additionally, the efficiency levels of both adopters and non-adopters would be underestimated if the selectivity bias is not appropriately accounted. As the average TE is consistently higher for adopter farmers than the control group, promoting improved fodder cultivation would increase input use efficiency, especially in resource-deprived small holder dairy farmers in the semi-arid tropics.

Climate change risk reduction in cultural landscapes: Insights from Cinque Terre and Waterloo

The risks posed by climate change are becoming an increasingly significant threat to land use and the socio-ecological system of many cultural landscapes. Despite substantial efforts to assess the vulnerability of cultural landscapes, building climate change adaptation capacity through participatory and integrated approaches has received less attention in landscape planning studies. Here, we assert that strengthening local community participation in regional planning is needed to support the sustainable management of cultural landscapes in a changing climate. We first identify fundamental determinants that affect local community involvement in cultural heritage conservation practices. Then, we apply these principles to analyze the adaptation planning processes in the cultural landscapes of Cinque Terre (Italy) and the Region of Waterloo (Canada). The findings suggest that although local community engagement is essential for building climate adaptation in cultural landscapes, decision-makers need improved strategies to integrate climate change policies into regional plans.

Evolution of Landscape Pattern and Tourism Service Value in Zhangjiakou City

Zhangjiakou is a northern Chinese city that hosted the Beijing 2022 Winter Olympic Games. As an important ice and snow tourist destination, it is essential to investigate Zhangjiakou's rate of landscape pattern change, the landscape ecological security level, and ecosystem service value, particularly the tourism ecological service value during its construction. With land use data from 2000 to 2020, this study comprehensively analyzed the dynamic changes in Zhangjiakou, including land use dynamics, the land use transfer matrix, landscape vulnerability, landscape disturbance, ecosystem service value, tourism ecological service value, and other aspects. The results show that the landscape pattern in Zhangjiakou was greatly disturbed from 2015 to 2018, and the landscape ecological security was threatened in the process of landscape pattern adjustment. By 2020, after the landscape pattern was adjusted and stabilized, the landscape ecological security was restored, and the ecosystem service value was significantly improved, especially the tourism ecological service value. The results of this study will play an important role in promoting the optimization of Zhangjiakou's ice and snow landscape pattern and the improvement of tourism ecological value. In addition, it provides important lessons for the development of other ice and snow tourist destinations.

The Mutational Landscape of Cancer's Vulnerability to Ionizing Radiation.

Large-scale sequencing efforts have established that cancer-associated genetic alterations are highly diverse, posing a challenge to the identification of variants that regulate complex phenotypes like radiation sensitivity. The impact of the vast majority of rare or common genetic variants on the sensitivity of cancers to radiotherapy remains largely unknown. We developed a scalable gene editing and irradiation platform to assess the role of categories of variants in cells. Variants were prioritized on the basis of genotype-phenotype associations from a previously completed large-scale cancer cell line radiation profiling study. Altogether, 488 alleles (396 unique single-nucleotide variants) from 92 genes were generated and profiled in an immortalized lung cell line, BEAS-2B. We validated our results in other cell lines (TRT-HU1 and NCI-H520), in vivo via the use of both cell line and patient-derived murine xenografts, and in clinical cohorts. We show that resistance to radiation is characterized by substantial inter- and intra-gene allelic variation. Some genes (e.g., KEAP1) demonstrated significant intragenic allelic variation in the magnitude of conferred resistance and other genes (e.g., CTNNB1) displayed both resistance and sensitivity in a protein domain-dependent manner. We combined results from our platform with gene expression and metabolite features and identified the upregulation of amino acid transporters that facilitate oxidative reductive capacity and cell-cycle deregulation as key regulators of radiation sensitivity. Our results reveal new insights into the genetic determinants of tumor sensitivity to radiotherapy and nominate a multitude of cancer mutations that are predicted to impact treatment efficacy.

Combining catastrophe technique and regression analysis to deduce leading landscape patterns for regional flood vulnerability: A case study of Nanjing, China

Urbanization leads to changes in land use, and the expansion of impervious surfaces leads to an increase in flood vulnerability. Predicting and analyzing these landscape pattern changes are important in the early stages of urban planning. In practice, the threshold for obtaining comprehensive and detailed hydrological and meteorological data is high, which makes it difficult for landscape and urban planners to quickly evaluate urban floods. To compensate for these trends, we took Nanjing, China, as the study site and discussed the leading flood vulnerability landscape patterns based on quantitative assessments. We introduced catastrophe theory to integrate three indicators and seven subfactors for flood vulnerability assessment: exposure, including precipitation; sensitivity, including elevation, slope, soil and drainage density; and adaptability, including land use and forest coverage. Then, we calculated the landscape pattern metrics (shape index, fractal dimension index, related circumscribing circle, contiguity index and landscape division index) at the class level. Finally, we divided the city into four subregions, established regression models for the subregions and the whole city, and deduced the leading flood vulnerability landscape patterns in each region and the whole city. We found that the leading landscape patterns varied among different regions. According to the research results, the landscape pattern indexes identified in this paper can be interpreted intuitively, which can provide a reference for modifying the planning layout of regional green infrastructure, optimizing the vulnerability of urban floods, and providing a basis for further improving Nanjing urban planning and alleviating the urban flood vulnerability. The methods proposed herein also will benefit land use and green infrastructure management in other regions lacking meteorological and hydrological data.

Unravelling net primary productivity dynamics under urbanization and climate change in the western Himalaya

Over the past few decades, climate change and urban expansion have strongly affected vegetation dynamics and overall carbon sink capacity of Himalayan ecosystem. However, the contribution of these two key factors on varying spatio-temporal scales in Himalayan landscapes still lacks in profound analyses. The present study takes Dharamsala and Pithoragarh urban landscapes as examples and uses the Enhanced Spatial and Temporal Adaptive Reflectance Fusion Model (ESTARFM) as the image fusion technique to generate highly resolved, both spatially (30 m) and temporally (monthly), NDVI images. These are used as inputs for Carnegie-Ames-Stanford Approach (CASA) model for Net Primary Productivity (NPP) estimation over the past two decades (2000–2020). During the study period, the NPP loss due to urbanization was 2065.43 kg C in Dharamsala and 401.07 kg C in Pithoragarh. Climate change, measured in terms of interseasonal changes in temperature, rainfall and solar radiation, had considerably contributed to the NPP variations of vegetated areas in both the study sites, however its contribution ratio was relatively lower than residual factors. There was a significant distribution gradient between how and where urban expansion and climate change influenced the NPP. Urban expansion impacts NPP more in plain areas corresponding to new urban land developments while climate change impacts NPP in high elevation mountainous regions dominated by Oak species. The observed declining trend of NPP under the current threat of urban expansion and climate change in the Himalaya highlights and invites the need of attributing importance to ecological issues. The findings of our study encompassing complex Himalayan landscapes could offer scientific perspectives for the management of ecological environment of highly fragile and vulnerable landscapes of the Himalaya.

Exploring the Impact of Landscape Ecological Risk on Water Quality in the Danjiangkou Reservoir, China

AbstractEvaluating the spatial‐temporal dynamics in ecological risk and understanding its impact on water quality in reservoirs could optimize watershed land use and protect reservoir water quality. However, this impact remains elusive due to the lack of long‐term field data, the heterogeneity of land use, and scale effects. Therefore, Danjiangkou Reservoir area was selected as the study area, where rapid urban expansion and ecological conservation and restoration measures have significantly changed the ecological environment, altering the water quality. We investigated the spatial‐temporal changes of land use from 1990 to 2020 and evaluated how landscape ecological risk changed, as well as explored the impact of landscape ecological risk changes on water quality. The landscape ecological risk was calculated by landscape vulnerability and landscape disturbance (based on fragmentation, separation, and fractal dimension). The results indicated that the growth rate of water bodies surged (7.65 km2/a) and cropland experienced an apparent reduction (14.39%) over the past 30 years. These landscape changes decreased ecological risk, especially after the water transfer. The results revealed that the impacts of ecological risk on water quality were better explained at the riparian scale than at the reach and catchment scales. Specifically, the ecological risk was strongly relevant to dissolved oxygen, Turbidity, Cl− and , and moderately correlated to Ca2+ and pH. While it was not correlated with total nitrogen, total phosphorus, and F−, possibly due to the irregular reservoir operations, occasional excessive use of fertilizers, and rock weathering. This study preliminarily discloses the impact of landscape ecological risk on water quality in a basin reservoir and provides a theoretical basis to take measures in advance for the sustainable development of a reservoir basin.

Land use and land cover change in a tropical mountain landscape of northern Ecuador: Altitudinal patterns and driving forces

Tropical mountain ecosystems are threatened by land use pressures, compromising their capacity to provide ecosystem services. Although local patterns and interactions among anthropogenic and biophysical factors shape these socio-ecological systems, the analysis of landscape changes and their driving forces is often qualitative and sector oriented. Using the Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response (DPSIR) framework, we characterized land use land cover (LULC) dynamics using Markov chain probabilities by elevation and geographic settings and then integrated them with a variety of publicly available geospatial and temporal data into a Generalized Additive Model (GAM) to evaluate factors driving such landscape dynamics in a sensitive region of the northern Ecuadorian Andes. In previous agricultural land located at lower elevations to the east of the studied territory, we found a significant expansion of floriculture (13 times) and urban areas (25 times), reaching together almost 10% of the territory from 1990 to 2014. Our findings also revealed an unexpected trend of páramo stability (0.75-0.90), but also a 40% reduction of montane forests, with the lowest probability (<0.50) of persistence in the elevation band of 2800-3300 m; agricultural land is replacing this LULC classes at higher elevation. These trends highlight the increasing threat of permanently losing the already vulnerable native mountain biodiversity. GAMs of socio-economic factors, demographic, infrastructure variables, and environmental parameters explained between 21 to 42% of the variation of LULC transitions observed in the study region, where topographic factors was the main drivers of change. The conceptual and methodological approach of our findings demonstrate how dynamic patterns through space and time and their explanatory drivers can assist local authorities and decision makers to improve sustainable resource land management in vulnerable landscapes such as the tropical Andes in northern Ecuador.

Evaluation for the spatiotemporal patterns of ecological vulnerability and habitat quality: implications for supporting habitat conservation and healthy sustainable development.

Currently, the rapid socioeconomic development and urbanization around the world have caused the ecological environment on the earth surface to become extremely fragile and destroyed. In addition, the increasing demand of human beings for material also leads to the unsustainable development of resources and environment. However, how to achieve the win-win goal between socioeconomic development and ecological protection in the context of these impacts? It is becoming a major problem for governments and policy makers. To further reveal the contradiction between man and land, taking Wuhan metropolitan area as the study area, this study mainly proposed a framework for the comprehensive optimization of landscape pattern and ecological environment and constructed the ecological vulnerability mixed evaluation model. Then, the integrated valuation of ecosystem services and trade-offs (InVEST) model was employed to evaluate the changes in habitat quality, focusing on the analysis of the impact mechanism of the evolution of ecological environment. This study found that the hybrid model of landscape vulnerability can successfully explore the landscape ecological vulnerability of Wuhan metropolitan area from 2000 to 2020, and its spatiotemporal differentiation pattern was obvious. The InVEST model showed that the habitat quality had obvious spatial differentiation. On the whole, the overall quality of the habitat was low and the degradation degree was high. Furthermore, our study also showed that the change of landscape ecological environment was influenced by the common potential of local nature and social economy, rather than a single factor. Finally, the main purpose of this study is to help scientifically formulate habitat protection and landscape planning strategies through in-depth study of landscape ecological environment, so as to alleviate man-land contradiction and support regional sustainable development.

Ecological risk assessment and identification of risk control priority areas based on degradation of ecosystem services: A case study in the Tibetan Plateau

Ecological risk assessment (ERA) is an important element in territorial spatial planning, and the integration of ecosystem services into ERA is a current hot topic. In this study, taking the Tibetan Plateau as an example, a two-dimensional matrix is constructed based on the probability of risk occurrence and the possible loss caused by the risk for ecological risk assessment, with topographic sensitivity, ecological resilience, landscape vulnerability, and ecological sensitivity as probability representations, and the degradation of key ecosystem services as loss representations to improve the traditional ERA model. The results show that: (1) the probability shows a distribution pattern of high in the northwest and low in the southeast, with high-probability dominating, accounting for about 55.94%; the loss shows a distribution of low in the north and high in the south, with 30.54% of the region experiencing increased losses. (2) The ecological risk level is dominated by middle-high and high, the sum of the two accounts for 55.44%, while low and middle-low risk areas account for only 10.47%. Based on the proportion of high-risk in 45 cities, the risk control priority areas are identified: Naqu, Ali and Rikaze. (3) The Moran's I for probability, loss, and risk were 0.878, 0.615, and 0.567, respectively, indicating that all three showed significant positive spatial autocorrelation. The negative correlation between probability and loss indicates that there is spatial heterogeneity between them.

Spatial Patterns of Deltaic Deposition/Erosion Revealed by Streaklines Extracted From Remotely‐Sensed Suspended Sediment Concentration

AbstractDeltas are vulnerable landscapes, making it crucial to understand their spatial patterns of deposition/erosion. Here, we used patterns in suspended sediment concentration (SSC) measured by a NASA airborne spectrometer, AVIRIS‐NG, to infer deposition/erosion within Wax Lake Delta, Louisiana. Conceptually, change in SSC within a fluid parcel traveling downstream reflects settling and/or entrainment from the bed. We found that remotely‐sensed SSC displays curvilinear features, which we interpret as streaklines. We developed a semi‐automated technique for extracting streaklines using a cost function based on SSC and its geometric curvature. We measured SSC change along streaklines, which when combined with flow velocities obtained from a hydrodynamic model, allowed us to infer instantaneous deposition/erosion rates. These rates are realistic in magnitude and record coherent spatial patterns across the delta. Our novel method provides a promising avenue for relating spatial patterns of land change to flow conditions over wide areas in vulnerable deltas.

EFFECTS OF URBAN GREENERY ON HEALTH. A STUDY FROM REMOTE SENSING

Abstract. Global warming is causing increasing Heat Waves that affect human health. High temperatures markedly increase morbidity and mortality. Urban Heat Islands increase the effects of Heat Waves and are a serious inconvenience to human health and comfort. Cities can substantially increase local temperatures and reduce temperature drop at night. During the night, the greater thermal inertia of the central areas reduces their cooling capacity. On the other hand, it is important to highlight that urban vegetation plays a key role in adapting cities to Global Warming and Urban Heat Island. Green areas have lower temperatures than the rest of land uses and generate a cooling effect that spreads to their surroundings creating a "cool island" effect. The main objective of this paper is to establish the nocturnal land surface temperature and land surface air temperature of Barcelona Metropolitan Area (35 municipalities, 636 km2, 3.3 million inhabitants) in an episode of a nocturnal heatwave and to estimate its possible impact on health and mortality. Subsequently, nighttime temperatures are analysed in this extreme heat context to determine their spatial distribution and detect the urban landscapes that are most vulnerable to extreme night heat. Modelling of land surface temperature must reveal the elements that determine night Urban Heat Island and consequently identify actions that can be implemented at urban planning level to refresh the environment during the night and thus increase the resilience of the most vulnerable landscapes and improve residents’ health. This paper studies the effect of urban greenery and green infrastructures on Nighttime Urban Heat Island and propose climate adaptation measures and design for urban green areas to decrease high temperature in a Heat Wave context, which contributes to reducing the serious negative impacts on people's health.

Toward a Robust Land Suitability Framework for Manure Management: Modeling Impacts and Evaluating Biophysical Characteristics

AbstractManure application at the right place, time, and rate is critical for sustainable manure management. A land suitability framework (LSF) was previously developed for identifying suitable areas for manure utilization considering landscape vulnerability. This study aimed to evaluate the developed LSF and provide insights to build a new robust LSF for manure utilization. The study (1) evaluates the potential environmental impacts of manure application compared to inorganic fertilization, (2) evaluates the robustness of the previously developed LSF, and (3) identifies landscape biophysical attributes driving manure nutrient loss. The fertilization scenarios were evaluated using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) in a case study watershed located in Pennsylvania, USA. SWAT‐simulated results showed 80% higher organic nitrogen loss and 44% lower nitrate loss with manure fertilization compared to inorganic fertilization scenarios. The previously developed LSF was a useful screening tool for identifying vulnerable areas for manure application. However, the simulation results indicated limitations in the LSF in representing the combined effect of multiple landscape biophysical attributes. The decision tree model using the landscape biophysical characteristics and nutrient loading simulations implied the LSF can be improved by considering soil biophysical characteristics. The study results provide critical insights toward developing a robust LSF for sustainable manure utilization.

Mitigasi Bencana Banjir pada Bangunan Sekolah Melalui Tata Lanskap

&lt;p class="Keywords"&gt;&lt;em&gt;Vulnerability to flood hazards occurs at SD Iroyunan, Pajangan, Bantul, which is located in the Bedog river watershed and the landscape pattern of the area is quite steep. The morphology of the area indicates that its development lacks insight into the potential for flooding and on sustainable landscape management. This phenomenon shows that there is a gap, so it is necessary to study the landscape. The study was carried out in a descriptive exploratory manner, to obtain a detailed description of the landscape pattern and vulnerability of the school site area. This study resulted in findings about patterns of landscape vulnerability and school landscape models in flood disaster preparedness.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

Large scale rocky desertification reversal in South China karst

The karst area in southwest China is, in recent decades, one of the world’s regions with the fastest vegetation growth and increase in aboveground biomass. The improvement in the ecological conditions within this region can, to a large extent, be attributed to ecological protection projects. However, it remains unclear whether the observed increase in vegetation cover could mitigate rocky desertification at large scale. In this study, we utilized information from large field campaigns in the years 2005, 2011, and 2016, supported by satellite imagery interpretation and statistics on ecological protection projects, to explore the impact of restoration efforts on rocky desertification mitigation and vegetation resilience/resistance. The results show that restoration efforts caused a net decrease of 26.14% in areas affected by rocky desertification from 2005 to 2016. The larger the restoration efforts, the stronger the decrease in rocky desertification areas, and also the vulnerability of landscapes towards desertification; the probability of rocky desertification occurring decreased almost linearly with increased restoration efforts. In addition, both vegetation resilience and resistance against climate variations increased with restoration efforts. Restoration efforts were mainly responsible for the recovery of the ecosystem, showing that human impact is the main driver for the reversal of rocky desertification. Our study provides scientific evidence on rocky desertification control being an important step towards a sustainable development of the landscapes of Southwest China.

Spatial Shifts in Species Richness in Response to Climate and Environmental Change: An Adaption of the EUROMOVE Model in the Czech Republic

Climate change has greatly altered plant habitats, resulting in greater biodiversity loss at different scales. Therefore, it is important to quantify such changes for better monitoring and conservation. In this study, we adapt the EUROMOVE model and its mean stable area indicator (MSAi) to the conditions in the Czech Republic. Our objective was to predict change in species richness from a representative pool of 687 species from 1990 to 2100 under the RCP 8.5 climate scenario, focusing on the current period (2018). Another objective was to assess the effectiveness of the MSAi as a tool for quantifying landscape vulnerability. Our result shows that species habitat expanded between 1990 and 2018, although about 2 per cent of species were lost. The average MSAi of the most favourable highland habitats may decrease from 0.85 to 0.65 by 2100 as &gt;20% of baseline species may be lost. Indicator species of Alnus (alder) and Festuca (fescue), typical of lowland habitats, are among the most vulnerable, already showing a net loss of their current habitat extent. The MSAi can be applied as a comprehensive tool to quantify the impact of climate change on landscape vulnerability as more survey data becomes available.

Exploring changes in landscape ecological risk in the Yangtze River Economic Belt from a spatiotemporal perspective

Landscape ecological risk reflects the extent to which ecosystems are threatened by human activities and environmental changes and is increasingly seen as the basis for decision-making in regional ecosystem management. Although the Yangtze River Economic Belt (YREB) has experienced drastic land use changes affected by human activities, the spatiotemporal heterogeneity of ecological risk in the region has not been thoroughly investigated. This study develops and applies an ecological risk assessment framework that integrates landscape pattern characteristics and landscape vulnerability dynamics to analyze spatiotemporal variations in landscape ecological risk in the YREB from 2000 to 2018. The results show moderate risk levels across most of the YREB during the study period, but risk was notably higher in the western and northern regions. Due to the gradual improvement in regional policies and the implementation of ecosystem restoration projects, there is a clear trend of risk reduction, and the area previously designated as high or medium–high risk was reduced by more than 150,000 km2 over the study period. Approximately 45% of the study area, where the risks are more difficult to mitigate or maintain at lower levels, was identified as a key area for future risk management. Significant spatiotemporal differences in ecological risks underscore the necessity of implementing spatially differentiated risk management strategies and long-term dynamic monitoring. This study provides a reference for future land use optimization and sustainable landscape management in the YREB.

Multi-Criteria Methodology for the Location of Photovoltaic Solar Energy Production Facilities in Tenerife (Spain)

This paper presents a multi-criteria methodology for the detection of optimal locations for solar photovoltaic installations connected to the electrical grid. The proposed methodology has been applied to the island of Tenerife, as it is one of the territories in Spain with the greatest solar potential. This methodology integrates an Aptitude Model (which covers variables such as connections to the electrical grid, accessibility, cloudiness, solar irradiation and slope) together with an Impact Model (which considers variables such as landscape vulnerability, land use and hydrology). Each one of the variables considered has been transformed into standardized decision criteria, which have been weighted by means of Saaty’s pair method, having also assigned them relative weights by means of expert consultation. The integration of both Models in a Hosting Capacity Model makes it possible to consider urban and environmental constraints in different possible scenarios. Finally, the Hosting Capacity Model generated is implemented through a Geographic Information System (GIS) on the island of Tenerife, so that it has been possible to detect the optimum locations for each municipality and region.