Land Use Conversion Research Articles

Mapping the irrecoverable carbon in Earth\u2019s ecosystems

Avoiding catastrophic climate change requires rapid decarbonization and improved ecosystem stewardship at a planetary scale. The carbon released through the burning of fossil fuels would take millennia to regenerate on Earth. Though the timeframe of carbon recovery for ecosystems such as peatlands, mangroves and old-growth forests is shorter (centuries), this timeframe still exceeds the time we have remaining to avoid the worst impacts of global warming. There are some natural places that we cannot afford to lose due to their irreplaceable carbon reserves. Here we map ‘irrecoverable carbon’ globally to identify ecosystem carbon that remains within human purview to manage and, if lost, could not be recovered by mid-century, by when we need to reach net-zero emissions to avoid the worst climate impacts. Since 2010, agriculture, logging and wildfire have caused emissions of at least 4.0 Gt of irrecoverable carbon. The world’s remaining 139.1 ± 443.6 Gt of irrecoverable carbon faces risks from land-use conversion and climate change. These risks can be reduced through proactive protection and adaptive management. Currently, 23.0% of irrecoverable carbon is within protected areas and 33.6% is managed by Indigenous peoples and local communities. Half of Earth’s irrecoverable carbon is concentrated on just 3.3% of its land, highlighting opportunities for targeted efforts to increase global climate security.

The Threat of Pests and Pathogens and the Potential for Biological Control in Forest Ecosystems

Forests are an essential component of the natural environment, as they support biodiversity, sequester carbon, and play a crucial role in biogeochemical cycles—in addition to producing organic matter that is necessary for the function of terrestrial organisms. Forests today are subject to threats ranging from natural occurrences, such as lightning-ignited fires, storms, and some forms of pollution, to those caused by human beings, such as land-use conversion (deforestation or intensive agriculture). In recent years, threats from pests and pathogens, particularly non-native species, have intensified in forests. The damage, decline, and mortality caused by insects, fungi, pathogens, and combinations of pests can lead to sizable ecological, economic, and social losses. To combat forest pests and pathogens, biocontrol may be an effective alternative to chemical pesticides and fertilizers. This review of forest pests and potential adversaries in the natural world highlights microbial inoculants, as well as research efforts to further develop biological control agents against forest pests and pathogens. Recent studies have shown promising results for the application of microbial inoculants as preventive measures. Other studies suggest that these species have potential as fertilizers.

Valuasi Ekonomi Konversi Lahan Pertanian Di Kawasan Aerotropolis Kulon Progo

The construction of the Yogyakarta International Airport (YIA) in Temon District, Kulon Progo Regency has various impacts, one of which is the growth of the aerotropolis area which causes changes in land use. The conversion of land use, causing any difference in economic valuation. The purpose of this research is to determine the impact of agricultural land conversion through economic value of the Kulon Progo aerotropolis area, with case studies in Palihan, Sindutan, Jangkaran, Kebonrejo and Glagah village. This research uses a non-empirical study method while research approach uses a mixed quantitative and qualitative approach. The analysis used in the form of land use change by digitizing the image (CSTR) of land and geo-referencing overlay in ArcGis, as well as economic valuation analysis. The result shows that changes in economic value have decreased for the use of agricultural and pond fields, while for settlements, the economic value after the construction of YIA has increased.

Land use change due to road construction

Roads is one of the main infrastructures to support the realization of economic development. The economic development resulting economic activity and the emergence of new industrial and activity centers, and then will stimulate population movement and growth. The increase of the population number and movement will encourage changes in land use. This study conducted to analyze the effect of road construction on the rate of land use change. Land use change caused by the construction of this road was identified by analyzing land use change with the help of a geographic information system. Satellite imageries are processed into maps based on geographic information systems to classify land use gradually over years. The results of this classification are then used for land use change analysis. The analysis carried out shows that there is a change in land use rate growth for building classification before and after road construction. Land use for growth for building classification is developed faster when a new road is built than before a road is built. In the area around the Salatiga and Ambarawa Ring Roads, the increase in the proportion of built-in land use is the conversion of forest land use and open land. Meanwhile, in the area around the Manado Ring Road, the increase in the proportion of built-in land use is the conversion of forest land use.

Land Use Demands for the CLUE-S Spatiotemporal Model in an Agroforestry Perspective

Rural landscape evolution models are used as tools for the analysis of the causes and impact of land use changes on landscapes. The CLUE-S (the Conversion of Land Use and its Effects at Small regional extent) model was developed to simulate the changes in current land use, by using quantitative relationships between land uses and driving factors combined with a dynamic modeling of land use competition. One of the modules that build the “CLUE-S” is the non-spatial subset of the model that calculates the temporal evolution of the land use/cover under several socio-economic scenarios. The purpose of this research was to estimate the demands of land use in the area of Mouzaki, Thessaly plain, Greece with the ultimate goal of using them in the non-spatial module of the CLUE-S to predict the evolution of land uses in year 2040. These estimations are the quantitative prediction of the spatial change for all land use types at the aggregate level. Three models of forecasting the future land cover in the area were simulated, in order to obtain a clear view of the different land uses in the future. We distinguished three model-scenarios for calculating the demand-forecasts: (a) business as usual (BAU) scenario, that deals with a linear projection of the current land use demands, (b) rapid economic development (RED) scenario, and (c) ecological land protection (ELP) scenario. In the BAU scenario the land use demands for the year 2040 were calculated using linear interpolation utilizing historical data from 1960 to 2020. In the RED scenario, the demands were calculated by maximizing the economic benefit of land uses, and in the ELP scenario the demands were calculated by maximizing the environmental benefit of land uses. Furthermore, a multi-criteria analysis was performed to find the trade-offs between economic benefit maximization and environmental benefit optimization. It was found that the agricultural lands reach their maximum area under the RED scenario, while reaching their lower bound for the ELP scenario. The same goes for agroforestry systems. The grasslands reach their lower bound under the ELP scenario, while they achieve a higher value under the RED scenario. Concerning the silvopastoral woodlands, although an increase is foreseen under the BAU scenario, it appears that they reach their lower bound in the other two scenarios, RED and ELP. Forests receive intermediate values and cover a larger area under the ELP scenario compared with the RED scenario. The expected forest cover under the BAU scenario is higher. Moreover, sparse and dense shrublands receive their lower bound for both optimization scenarios, while the settlements reach the upper bound for the RED scenario and the lower one under the ELP scenario.

Spatial and temporal dynamics of soil organic carbon stock and carbon sequestration affected by major land-use conversions in Northwestern highlands of Ethiopia

Soil organic carbon (SOC) is the major component of the terrestrial carbon (C) budget, a key indicator of environmental sustainability. So, estimating SOC stock and soil carbon (C) sequestration dynamics is important for evidence-based and carbon-conscious decisions. Quantification of SOC stock and soil C sequestration affected by land-use changes (LUCs) have received much attention in addressing food and climate security. This study aims to estimate the dynamics of SOC stock, soil C sequestration and associated soil parameters affected by major LUCs from 2012 to 2021 in Awi highlands of Amhara Regional State of Ethiopia. The study area has experienced dramatic LUC, particularly plantation and growing of Acacia decurrens (J.C. Wendl.) tree followed by recurrent deforestation and then cropping and back to the plantation. The study quantified spatial and temporal dynamics of SOC stock, soil C sequestration and associated changes affected by the LUCs. A total of 22 topsoil (0–20 cm) legacy data was obtained from the Ethiopian Soil Information System (EthiSIS) database of 2012. The same number of samples were collected at the same locations in 2021 by using the same sampling procedure as that of 2012. In addition, the same number of core samples were collected in 2021 for bulk density analysis. To estimate the unmeasured bulk density of legacy data, we applied a pedotransfer function. We used empirical equations and basic statistics to assess changes in SOC stock and C sequestration rate between the two periods. Statistically significant variation (P < 0.01) in SOC stock and C sequestration was observed between the two periods. LUC from acacia plantation to croplands caused a decline of SOC stock by −30.16%, and it also caused the decline of total nitrogen stock, available phosphorus, cation exchange capacity (CEC). However, the reverse LUC caused an increase in SOC by 27.74% and the abovementioned soil parameters. LUC from plantation forest to cropland caused emission of 8.3 tons of CO2 year−1. Generally, overall LUCs caused the net negative change in SOC stock by (−2.42 %) and associated soil parameters in the last ten years. Our study provides evidence that overall LUCs in the current study site caused a decline in SOC stock, along with associated soil parameters with carbon emitted to the atmosphere. Hence, sustainable land-use management options which can offset losses in SOC stock should be implemented soon.

Soil erosion significantly decreases aggregate-associated OC and N in agricultural soils of Northeast China

Cultivation after the converting natural ecosystems to agricultural land is often accompanied by accelerated soil erosion. To better understand how land-use conversion and agricultural erosion separately affect aggregate-associated nitrogen (N) and organic carbon (OC), we examined the responses of aggregate-associated N and OC to both the converting forest to agricultural land and erosion in the agricultural region of Northeast China. Non-erosion sites in forest and agricultural land converted from forestland 60 years ago were selected to address the effects of land-use change. The sites with various erosion intensities in an eroding area of sloping cropland (i.e., non-erosion, light erosion, moderate erosion and heavy erosion) were selected to compare the effects of the erosion intensity. The measured soil metrics included the soil bulk density, water-stable aggregates, and aggregate-associated OC and N along 0–70 cm soil profiles. Converting forest to agricultural land did not significantly influence the OC and N concentrations in each aggregate, while the land-use change significantly reduced the OC and N stocks in macroaggregates but increased them in microaggregates and silt+clay fraction. However, erosion significantly decreased the OC and N concentrations and stocks in each aggregate. The changes in the OC and N stocks in aggregates were mainly due to the depletion of soil aggregates in responding to the conversion of forest to agricultural land but due to decreases in OC and N concentrations in aggregates in responding to soil erosion. Our results indicated that the effects of erosion on aggregate-associated OC and N were greater compared with the effects of converting forest to agricultural land in this Mollisol region.

Litter and microclimate controls on soil heterotrophic respiration after converting seasonal rainforests to rubber plantations in tropical China

Land-use changes can alter carbon cycling. Soil carbon loss resulting from the conversion of natural forests to rubber plantations (RP) may occur due to changes in litter inputs or in biotic and abiotic environmental conditions. In this study, we conducted a reciprocal soil and litter translocation mesocosm experiment for 15 months in a seasonal rainforest (SR) and RP to elucidate the effect of litter, soil and site conditions on heterotrophic respiration and its temperature sensitivity after land-use conversion. We found that rate of soil heterotrophic respiration (Rh) was higher at RP site than at SR site or for SR litter than RP litter with significant interactions between forest site and litter type, and did not differ between SR and RP soils. The Q10 values of Rh did not differ between forest sites, soils, or litter types but were substantially lower when litter was absent and substantially higher when RP soil was incubated in SR site and vice versa. Removal of surface litters led to a reduction of Rh by 27-45%. Soil labile organic C pool and microbial biomass were not influenced by litter type or forest site, but were influenced by soil origin, with higher values for SR soil than RP soil. Soil temperature and moisture were not influenced by litter type and soil but differed between forest sites with higher moisture at RP site than SR site. Our results suggested that changes in physical environmental conditions, rather than changes in litter input or soil biochemical properties, attributed to the elevated soil heterotrophic respiration in RP, resulting in soil carbon loss following the tropical land-use changes.

Trade and Deforestation Predict Rat Lungworm Disease, an Invasive-Driven Zoonosis, at Global and Regional Scales.

The introduction of non-native species and deforestation are both important drivers of environmental change that can also facilitate the geographic spread of zoonotic pathogens and increase disease risk in humans. With ongoing trends in globalization and land-use conversions, introduced species and deforestation are ever more likely to pose threats to human health. Here, we used rat lungworm disease, an emerging zoonotic disease caused by Angiostrongylus cantonensis and maintained by invasive rats and snails, to explore how these two forms of environmental change can impact zoonotic disease risk. We used logistic regressions to examine the role of global trade in the introduction of A. cantonensis at a country level and used model estimates to predict the probability of introduction as a function of trade. We then used hurdle-based regression models to examine the association between deforestation and rat lungworm disease in two regions where A. cantonensis is already established: Hawaii and Thailand. At the global scale, we found the trade of horticultural products to be an important driver in the spread of A. cantonensis and that the majority of countries at high risk of future A. cantonensis introduction are islands. At country scales, we found deforestation to increase the per-capita risk of A. cantonensis exposure in Hawaii and Thailand. Our study provides a preliminary view of the associations between species introductions, deforestation, and risk of A. cantonensis exposure in people. Better understanding how these two widespread and overlapping forms of environmental change affect human health can inform international biosecurity protocols, invasive species management, and land-use policies.

Multiscale Assessment of Agricultural Consumptive Water Use in California's Central Valley.

Spatial estimates of crop evapotranspiration with high accuracy from the field to watershed scale have become increasingly important for water management, particularly over irrigated agriculture in semiarid regions. Here, we provide a comprehensive assessment on patterns of annual agricultural water use over California's Central Valley, using 30‐m daily evapotranspiration estimates based on Landsat satellite data. A semiempirical Priestley‐Taylor approach was locally optimized and cross‐validated with available field measurements for major crops including alfalfa, almond, citrus, corn, pasture, and rice. The evapotranspiration estimates explained >70% variance in daily measurements from independent sites with an RMSE of 0.88 mm day−1. When aggregated over the Valley, we estimated an average evapotranspiration of 820 ± 290 mm yr−1 in 2014. Agricultural water use varied significantly across and within crop types, with a coefficient of variation ranging from 8% for Rice (1,110 ± 85 mm yr−1) to 59% for Pistachio (592 ± 352 mm yr−1). Total water uses in 2016 increased by 9.6%, as compared to 2014, mostly because of land‐use conversion from fallow/idle land to cropland. Analysis across 134 Groundwater Sustainability Agencies (GSAs) further showed a large variation of agricultural evapotranspiration among and within GSAs, especially for tree crops, e.g., almond evapotranspiration ranging from 339 ± 80 mm yr−1 in Tracy to 1,240 ± 136 mm yr−1 in Tri‐County Water Authority. Continuous monitoring and assessment of the dynamics and spatial heterogeneity of agricultural evapotranspiration provide data‐driven guidance for more effective land use and water planning across scales.

Fire-derived phosphorus fertilization of African tropical forests

Central African tropical forests face increasing anthropogenic pressures, particularly in the form of deforestation and land-use conversion to agriculture. The long-term effects of this transformation of pristine forests to fallow-based agroecosystems and secondary forests on biogeochemical cycles that drive forest functioning are poorly understood. Here, we show that biomass burning on the African continent results in high phosphorus (P) deposition on an equatorial forest via fire-derived atmospheric emissions. Furthermore, we show that deposition loads increase with forest regrowth age, likely due to increasing canopy complexity, ranging from 0.4 kg P ha−1 yr−1 on agricultural fields to 3.1 kg P ha−1 yr−1 on old secondary forests. In forest systems, canopy wash-off of dry P deposition increases with rainfall amount, highlighting how tropical forest canopies act as dynamic reservoirs for enhanced addition of this essential plant nutrient. Overall, the observed P deposition load at the study site is substantial and demonstrates the importance of canopy trapping as a pathway for nutrient input into forest ecosystems.

Modelling multi-hazard threats to cultural heritage sites and environmental sustainability: The present and future scenarios

Cultural heritage sites, particularly those in mountainous regions face serious threats as mountains are hazardous places and many of them are located on shifting tectonic plates and live under the threat of earthquakes and related activities. Alongside, mountains are also exposed to atmospheric interactions and rainfall plays an important role in land movement activities through seepage of rainwater in fragile structures. Moreover, gravity pushing along with land use and climate change induced changing rainfall patterns and modification of slope lead to several hazards in mountainous regions. Environmental degradation in terms of soil erosion, loss of forests, and agricultural products are common phenomena in mountainous regions due to various multi-hazard threats. Therefore, it is necessary to conserve and management of our mountain environments as it is essential to the survival of the global ecosystem. Thus, the current research article focused on multi-hazard susceptibility mapping and evaluation of its risk assessment in some of the famous cultural heritage sites in the eastern Himalayan region of Sikkim state, India. Multi-hazard susceptibility mapping was carried out using boosted regression tree (BRT), Bayesian additive regression tree (BART) and Bayesian generalized linear model (BGLM) considering twenty-two conditioning factors and seismic activity, as this region is highly susceptible to earthquakes. The future climate and land use change were estimated using four representative concentration pathway (RCP) scenarios and Dynamic Conversion of Land-Use and its Effects (Dyna-CLUE) model respectively to identify future multi-hazard susceptibility areas and vulnerable cultural heritage sites. The novelty of this study is to a combination of machine learning, RCPs derived future climate and Dyna-CLUE induced future land use change estimation for multi-hazard modelling and identification of vulnerable cultural heritage sites. The result of this study will help land use planners and archaeologists to adopt proper management strategies for protecting the cultural heritage sites and maintaining environmental sustainability for the proper management of mountain resources.

Land Use Changes Assessment using a triangulated framework: Perception Interviews, Land-Use/Land Cover Observation, and Spatial Planning Analysis in Tanjung Batu and Derawan Island, Indonesia

Understanding land-use change is imperative in the management of Indonesian coastal ecosystems with numerous environmental impacts generated from land-use conversion. To assess these impacts in holistic perspective, we use three sources of data, land cover change, policy maps, and interviews, to triangulate the main issues. Combining these sources, we analyze land-use changes in the past based on perception interviews and secondary data from the government spatial plan policy map and observable land-cover. In Tanjung Batu and Derawan Island we found that local populations were more aware of the changes related to infrastructure development, but that there are discrepancies between assigned and actual land-use, illustrating the value of a triangulated framework.

Afforestation With Different Tree Species Causes a Divergent Evolution of Soil Profiles and Properties

Land-use change and specifically a change in the type of vegetation cover affects soil morphology, chemistry, biology, and nutrient regimes. Numerous studies have documented that in land-use conversions from agricultural land to forest, or from plantations to restored natural savanna most soil attributes and functions undergo changes. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the changes brought about by afforestation of degraded croplands and to understand the impact of forest vegetation on soil evolution in a semiarid region where soils originally co-evolved with a savanna biotope. We used long-term experiments (&amp;gt;40 years) of five tree species: Pinus halepensis (PH), Pinus halepensis inoculated with ecto-mycorrhiza at planting (PM), Pinus pinea (PP), Eucalyptus spp. (E), and Gleditsia triacanthos (G) and compared these to an agricultural soil (A) at the same site near Santa Rosa, La Pampa in the semiarid center of Argentina. Soil profiles were described, and samples taken for chemical and physical analyses of soil properties [organic matter (OM), pH, cation exchange capacity (CEC) and exchangeable cations, particle size distribution (texture), aggregate stability (MWD), bulk density (BD), porosity (TP), and water holding capacity (WHC)]. We found a strong effect of tree species on soil profile morphology, even taxonomy, and on all studied variables. PM and G had highest OM, CEC, neutral pH, higher TP, WHC, while PH, PP, and E had acid pH, lower base saturation, OM, TP, and WHC. The effect of tree species on the soil profile was noticeable a depth of about 40 cm, comprising the A and AC, but not the C horizons. The results showed that to obtain reasonable results of OM sequestration under forest systems, tree species should be chosen to include legumes to improve C/N stoichiometry for C fixation, or inoculation with mycorrhiza to promote microbial transformation of forest litter.

Sensitivity of soil aggregation to soil organic carbon fractions under land-use conversion from rice to organic vegetable cultivation

Conversion of rice-wheat rotation (RWR) to conventional vegetable cultivation, especially vegetable cultivation in plastic sheds, readily causes soil structure degradation, and organic manure is commonly applied to mitigate such degradation. Although many studies have focused on changes in SOC properties or structural soil parameters, additional details about the changes, such as the relationships between SOC fractions and soil aggregates during unique land-use changes, are unknown. Here, we studied the changes in soil aggregation, and SOC parameters in 14-year-old plastic-shed vegetable fields (PVFs) and open-air vegetable fields (OVFs) covered with organic manure, with adjacent RWR fields serving as a control. The vegetable fields were converted from RWR fields. SOC fractions were analyzed by using 13C solid-state NMR spectroscopy, and the aggregate classes were divided as follows: large macro-aggregates (>2 mm), small macro-aggregates (2–0.25 mm), micro-aggregates (0.25–0.053 mm), and silt and clay particles (<0.053 mm). PVFs had higher SOC and MBC than OVFs and RWR fields. In terms of the SOC fractions, the proportion of O-alkyl C decreased as RWR (53.90%) > PVF (43.21%) > OVF (35.37%), in contrast to the trends in the carbonyl C and aromatic C fractions. The aggregate-associated C, especially that associated with large macro-aggregates and micro-aggregates, in the PVFs was highest among the treatments. The O-alkyl C fraction in large macro-aggregates decreased in the order RWR (44.67%) > OVF (35.76%) > PVF (32.40%), consistent with the results for micro-aggregates. Furthermore, there was a significant (P ≤ 0.05) positive relationship between macro-aggregates (>0.25 mm) and the active C fractions, in contrast to the relationships with stable fractions. It suggested that plastic-shed cultivation might have a more positive effect than open-air cultivation on soil structure and the carbon stock when large amounts of organic manure are applied; moreover, the SOC quantity and quality affect soil aggregation differently.

Analysis of Urban Expansion on Agricultural Food Production in Calabar, Nigeria

Urban growth appears to have direct effects on the available agricultural land in and around urban area which in turn affects food production and other agricultural activities in the city. Indiscriminate urban growth and increasing losses of agricultural lands have become an issue in developing countries. The aim of this study is to use Remote Sensing and GIS to monitor the impact of urban expansion on agricultural food production in Calabar, Nigeria. Landsat images of 1986, 2003 and 2018 of Calabar municipal and Calabar South were obtained. The study employed supervised digital image classification method using ILWIS 3.2 and ArcGIS 10.2a software. GIS software was used to classify the landuse into built-up area, natural vegetation, bare soil, agricultural land and water bodies. Also, a set of structured questionnaire were administered using the stratified random sampling technique to elicit information on the socio economic and driven factors responsible for conversion of agricultural landuse, effect of urban expansion on agricultural food production and measures adopted to preserve agricultural land uses. The results revealed increase in urban expansion on food production over the periods (1986–2018). Recommendations were provided that will reduce the rate of urban expansion on agricultural food production in the study area.

Non-invasive methods in the identification of hydrological ecosystem services of a tropical isolated wetland (Brazilian study case)

In Brazil, since 2013 the Southeast region has been dealing with recurrent hydric stress resulted from the prolongation of the dry season, whose tendency is to be more dramatic in the function of climate change. The situation is more critical in some areas, including Cordeirópolis, projecting a reduction of 50%–100% in water availability in the next 15 years, demanding urgency in water availability-use balance. Considering the significant presence of small Geographic Isolated Wetlands (GIW) in the region, it is crucial the recognition of the link between wetlands and hydrology in the catchment since these ecosystems store rainwater and can act as aquifer recharger zones. The objective of this study is to evaluate the effectiveness of non-invasive methods, such as UAV-mapping and DC resistivity, and low-invasive (in situ hydraulic conductivity) to unveil the hydrological ecosystem services of a GIW in terms of surface and groundwater. From the high-resolution orthomosaic and digital elevation model, three compartments were qualified and quantified; (i) current wetland, (ii) Flooding area and, (iii) Potential wetland expansion. From the DC resistivity, the interaction between surface water and groundwater was identified, indicating the presence of a shallow saturated only beyond the perimeter of the current wetland as a possible result of land-use conversion or climate change. In addition, the local igneous intrusion comprises the connection between shallow/surface waters and deep aquifers made by fractures. Thus, the association of both methods showed high applicability concerning the identification of GIW superficial hydrological functions (UAV) and the system's subsurface dynamic (DC resistivity).

Effects of land-use conversion from Masson pine forests to tea plantations on net ecosystem carbon and greenhouse gas budgets

A five-year in situ field experiment was conducted to explore the effects of land-use conversion from Masson pine forests to tea plantations on the net ecosystem carbon balance (NECB) and net greenhouse gas (GHG) budget. Compared with forests, tea plantations decreased soil methane (CH4) uptake by 23.3–73.1% and increased heterotrophic respiration (Rh) and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions by 1.4–60.0% and 263.2–2796.7%, respectively, over the five-year study period. The forests acted as net carbon sinks (0.04 Mg C ha−1 yr−1 on average). Converting the forests to tea fields in the first and second years led to net carbon losses of 27.94 and 2.28 Mg C ha−1 yr−1, respectively. These losses could primarily be attributed to the sharp decrease in net primary productivity (NPP) by removal of the forests and increase in Rh outweighing organic fertilizer application in the first year, and Rh exceeding NPP in the second year. Tea plantations served as net carbon sinks (0.27–0.69 Mg C ha−1 yr−1) in the third to fifth years following land-use conversion, which was mainly due to organic fertilizer application and NPP outweighing Rh. The forests showed net GHG uptake (−0.07 Mg CO2-eq. ha−1 yr−1 on average). However, tea plantations functioned as net GHG emissions for the first and second years (104.3 and 8.9 Mg CO2-eq. ha−1 yr−1, respectively) following their conversion from the forests primarily due to net C losses and N2O emissions. Subsequently, tea fields transformed into net GHG sinks (−0.29 to −0.06 Mg CO2-eq. ha−1 yr−1) from the third to fifth years following land-use conversion, primarily due to the NECB overweighing N2O emissions. On a 5-year average, converting Masson pine forests to tea plantations resulted in net C losses and net GHG emissions of 5.76 Mg C ha−1 yr−1 and 22.53 Mg CO2-eq. ha−1 yr−1, respectively. In conclusion, net C losses and net GHG emissions in the first two years following the conversion of Masson pine forests to tea plantations should be considered when assessing the environmental impacts on land-use conversion.

Wildlife-friendly food requires a multi-stakeholder approach to deliver landscape-scale biodiversity conservation in the Satoyama landscape of Japan

Many global biodiversity hotspots have been cultivated for food for centuries and their unique agrobiodiversity is now under threat from land-use conversion, land abandonment or agricultural intensification. Wildlife-friendly farming (WFF) certification is a market-based approach that aims to alleviate the threats through charging a premium over conventional food products. This study explores the economic demand for WFF to protect biodiversity and maintain traditional rice cultivation in the Satoyama landscape of Japan by quantifying the price differential for key attributes of a landscape scale WFF scheme using choice experiments with consumers. A novel component of this study was to combine the choice experiment data with qualitative interviews with stakeholders together with observational and participatory approaches to identify underlying motivations for purchase decisions and to assess using a mixed methods approach the potential of WFF schemes to support landscape scale conservation and rural development. We found that consumer's willingness to pay (WTP) for organic rice was the highest, with a premium of 2937 JPY (26.83 USD) compared to non-organic rice. Respondents were also willing to pay more for all rice that conserves individual target species, with WTP for bird species the highest and for rice produced specifically in the traditional Satoyama landscapes. Although a WFF-Satoyama programme would bring public benefits and support rural livelihoods we suggest there are several challenges to widespread adoption that include an ageing farming population, a lack of appropriate business skills and technical capacity, and obstacles arising from Japanese land use policies concerning forestry and hunting.

Spatial and temporal deep learning methods for deriving land-use following deforestation: A pan-tropical case study using Landsat time series

Assessing land-use following deforestation is vital for reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation. In this paper, for the first time, we assess the potential of spatial, temporal and spatio-temporal deep learning methods for large-scale classification of land-use following tropical deforestation using dense satellite time series over six years on the pan-tropical scale (incl. Latin America, Africa, and Asia). Based on an extensive reference database of six forest to land-use conversion types, we find that the spatio-temporal models achieved a substantially higher F1-score accuracies than models that account only for spatial or temporal patterns. Although all models performed better when the scope of the problem was limited to a single continent, the spatial models were more competitive than the temporal ones in this setting. These results suggest that the spatial patterns of land-use within a continent share more commonalities than the temporal patterns and the spatial patterns across continents. This work explores the feasibility of extending and complementing previous efforts for characterizing follow-up land-use after deforestation at a small-scale via human visual interpretation of high resolution RGB imagery. It supports the usage of fast and automated large-scale land-use classification and showcases the value of deep learning methods combined with spatio-temporal satellite data to effectively address the complex tasks of identifying land-use following deforestation in a scalable and cost effective manner.