Land Protection Research Articles

Sea-level rise induced change in exposure of low-lying coastal land: implications for coastal conservation strategies

Coastal erosion and flooding are projected to increase during the 21st century due to sea-level rise (SLR). To prevent adverse impacts of unmanaged coastal development, national organizations can apply a land protection policy, which consists of acquiring coastal land to avoid further development. Yet, these reserved areas remain exposed to flooding and erosion enhanced by SLR. Here, we quantify the exposure of the coastal land heritage portfolio of the French Conservatoire du littoral (Cdl). We find that 30% (~40%) of the Cdl lands owned (projected to be owned) are located below the contemporary highest tide level. Nearly 10% additional surface exposure is projected by 2100 under the high greenhouse gas emissions scenario (SSP5-8.5) and 2150 for the moderate scenario (SSP2-4.5). The increase in exposure is largest along the West Mediterranean coast of France. We also find that Cdl land exposure increases more rapidly for SLR in the range of 0–1 m than for SLR in the range 2–4 m. Thus, near-future uncertainty on SLR has the largest impact on Cdl land exposure evolution and related land acquisition planning. Concerning erosion, we find that nearly 1% of Cdl land could be lost in 2100 if observed historical trends continue. Adding the SLR effect could lead to more than 3% land loss. Our study confirms previous findings that Cdl needs to consider land losses due to SLR in its land acquisition strategy and start acquiring land farther from the coast.

Assessment of the Coupling Degree between Agricultural Modernization and the Coordinated Development of Black Soil Protection and Utilization: A Case Study of Heilongjiang Province

Agricultural management encompasses various processes, including agricultural modernization and land protection and utilization; however, these aspects are seldom considered simultaneously. This study focuses on Heilongjiang Province, a major grain-producing region in China, in efforts to address this gap. The objective is to facilitate the mutual sustainable development of agricultural modernization as well as the protection and utilization of black soil through research and coordination. Statistical data from a case study conducted in Heilongjiang Province serve as the basis for this investigation, aiming to identify contradictions in the coordinated development of agricultural modernization and black soil protection and utilization in the province, design mechanisms to sustain this development, and ensure the mutually supportive progress of both aspects. This research delves into an infrequently explored dimension of the current policies surrounding black soil imposed by the Chinese authorities, offering significant insights into agricultural modernization.

Quantitative and qualitative yield loss caused by red deer (Cervus elaphus L.) grazing on permanent organic grasslands

ABSTRACT This paper addresses yield loss due to red deer (Cervus elaphus) grazing on permanent grasslands on three organic farms in SE Slovenia over two consecutive years. Deer graze on permanent grasslands throughout the year, but the resulting crop loss varies during the growing season. Accounting for three mowings, the quantitative yield loss due to deer grazing totalled 48–52%, or 3.9–4.3 t/ha. Deer had the highest consumption capacity in the spring (first mowing: yield loss of 1.7–1.9 t of air-dried hay/ha), and towards the end of the growing season, consumption decreased (third mowing: loss of 0.9 t/ha). A floristic inventory indicated low species diversity and production in permanent grasslands in SE Slovenia. The crude protein content in unprotected plots was generally greater than that in protected plots, but due to a large quantitative yield loss, the yield of crude protein and net energy for lactation on heavily grazed land were much lower than those on protected land in all mowings. The average additional cost per unit of heavily grazed area ranged from 182 to 344 EUR/ha, and the differences are the result of the different intensities of game grazing in individual locations and grassland production capacities.

Analysis of land system resilience: Static and dynamic perspectives

Land system face multiple threats due to the long-term effects of climate change, global geopolitical and economic. Our research simulates the static and dynamic resilience of land systems under increasing socioeconomic pressures and frequent disturbances from natural disasters. We use an improved load-capacity model to simulate the cascading failure effects of agricultural land systems. The study finds that parameters change after deliberate attacks much earlier than random attacks that cause network collapse. The core nodes in the trade structure carry most of the functions, and such regions and land types should be focused on. Cascading failures make the network more vulnerable due to the transmissibility of pressure. Static attacks can cause network collapse when more than 30% of nodes are attacked, while dynamic attacks only need to attack 10% of nodes. According to parameter optimization, the node capacity should be maximized while reducing the gap in the initial load of the nodes, thereby weakening the cascading effect. To ensure the reliability of the results, the article conduct robustness tests. Finally, in order to develop sustainable land systems, the article propose that it is necessary to assess resilience, identify key elements, effectively monitor land systems, and develop sound land protection plans.

Natural vegetation biomass and the dimension of forest quality in tropical agricultural landscapes.

Forest cover has been a pivotal indicator of biological conservation and carrying capacity for wildlife in forest ecoregions. Such a relationship underpins policies focused on the extension of protected lands. Here, we estimate aboveground biomass (AGB) as a proxy for habitat quality in seminatural rural patches and provide a comparison with approaches that only consider forest cover. We hypothesize that recommendations for biological conservation in agricultural landscapes are substantially improved if habitat quality is also taken into account, and thus consider the possibility of forest quality being modulated by land-use amount, type, and age. We assessed AGB in a densely farmed Brazilian region using a straightforward approach designed to be affordable at large scales, focusing on two expanding and contrasting land uses: sugarcane, and eucalyptus plantations. At a detailed scale, we confirmed through field surveys and AGB estimation using 3D-multispectral imagery (i.e., AGB = 0.842 × vegetation heightNDVI+1) that AGB variation could be predicted with forest degradation classes that are visually distinguishable with high-resolution images: 9.33 t ha-1 (90% predictive intervals [PI] = [3.23, 26.97]) in regenerating fields (RF), 31.12 t ha-1 (90% PI = [10.77, 89.90]) in pioneer woods (PW), and 149.04 t ha-1 (90% PI = [51.59, 430.58]) in dense forests (DF). Applying these values to land units sampled across the study region, we found an average land use of 88.5%, together with 11.5% of land set aside for conservation, which reduced AGB to less than 4.2% of its potential (averages of 5.85 t ha-1 in sugarcane-dominated areas and 6.56 t ha-1 in eucalyptus-dominated areas, with secondary forests averaging 149.04 t ha-1). This imbalance between forest cover and AGB resulted from forest quality decay, which was similarly severe among land-use types, ages, and extensions. Therefore, the shortage of trophic resources is likely more critical to wildlife than spatial limitations in vastly deforested tropical ecoregions, where AGB and carbon sinks can be more than doubled just by restoring forests in lands currently spared by agriculture.

Preliminary Assessment of Geohazards’ Impacts on Geodiversity in the Kratovska Reka Catchment (North Macedonia)

This comprehensive study investigates the intricate interplay between geodiversity, geohazards, and anthropogenic influences within the Kratovska Reka catchment—an area distinguished by its remarkable geosites. Kratovska Reka, spanning a length of 17.3 km, serves as the left tributary to Kriva Reka. The watershed of Kratovska Reka, covering an area of 68.5 km2, is situated on the northwestern inclines of the Osogovo Mts in North Macedonia. Despite harboring exceptional geodiversity, the area lacks protective measures for its myriad geosites. Evaluating susceptibility to geohazards, including excessive erosion, landslides, and flash floods, this research identifies heightened risk zones, particularly in the valley of Kratovska Reka and its tributaries. A multi-hazard model reveals that 56.07% of the basin is vulnerable to geohazards. The study correlates lithological composition, relief features, and morphometric characteristics with geohazards, emphasizing the significance of paleovolcanic relief in resisting excessive erosion. Human-induced factors, notably deforestation and inappropriate land use, amplify geohazards. This research underscores the urgent need for geosite protection and sustainable land management to mitigate geohazards’ impacts. Additionally, it explores the correlation between land use practices and geodiversity, emphasizing the importance of responsible land management in safeguarding the geological and geomorphological values of the researched area.

Rediscovery of the waterlily Nymphaea thermarum Eb. Fisch. in Rwanda

Abstract Nymphaea thermarum Eb. Fisch. (family Nymphaeaceae) is a small waterlily endemic to Rwanda that has been categorized as Extinct in the Wild since 2010. We report the rediscovery of N. thermarum in July 2023, not far from its locus classicus, identify the current and potential threats to the wild population (mining and overharvesting by collectors, respectively) and recommend the urgent conservation measures and research required to save the species from extinction. The species occupies small muddy ditches fed by hot spring water used for avocado plantations and fish pools. The population comprises hundreds of individuals, including reproductive adult plants, and seedlings. In the short term, conservation actions should include land protection, negotiation to ensure that sufficient water is reaching the habitat of N. thermarum and the reassessment of the species on the IUCN Red List, probably as Critically Endangered. In the medium term, the creation of a nature reserve, the restoration of the areas already affected by mining, and the reintroduction of N. thermarum to its original site would support long-term in situ conservation of the species. Further research should clarify the total and effective population size, population structure, ecology and genetics of this species.

Land use land cover change intensity analysis for sustainable natural resources management: The case of northwestern highlands of Ethiopia

Various studies conducted in the northwestern highlands of Ethiopia from 2001 to 2020 indicated two contrasting directions of change in land use land cover. One direction is the expansion of farmlands at the expense of the natural vegetation, and the other direction is expansion of plantation forest on farm and grazing lands. But, the net effect of land use land cover change is not as such clear. A clear understudying of such dynamics in land use land cover and the net effect of the change helps design effective land use planning policy, which enhances sustainable natural resources management. Accordingly, the study analyzed intensity of land use land cover change for three-time periods (1990–2000; 2000–2010 and 2010–2020). The findings of this study can be applicable to different parts of the globe where two contrasting directions of change in land use land cover exist. The study employed both qualitative and quantitative methods, which were specifically applied through carrying out step-by-step: satellite image acquisition, preprocessing, classification, accuracy assessment, and intensity analysis. Result of the analysis indicated that land use land cover change over the three intervals showed considerable variation where intensity was consistently increasing from the first (1990–2000) interval to the subsequent (2000–2010) interval, and it was fast (8.24%) during the third interval (2010–2020). The analysis also indicated considerably high transition from bare land to grazing land and bush land during the third interval, especially on areas where the community practiced controlled management of grazing lands (zero grazing) and protection of bush lands. From the total bare land cover in 2010, 21% converted to grazing land and 17% converted to bush land. LULC transition from bush land to cultivated land was rising due to encroachment of bush lands by farming. Transition from bush land to cultivated land increased by 4%, 16% and 50% in the period 1990–2000, 2000–2010, and 2010–2020, respectively. On the other hand, transition from cultivated land to forest land was considerably high during the third interval. From the total cultivated land cover in 2010, 25% converted to forest land, where the change is mainly associated to the introduction of woodlot plantation on individual farmland holdings. In general, the finding suggests that controlled management of grazing lands; comparing environmental and economic benefits of quarry/stone extraction sites; and plantation of economically viable and environmentally sound tree species are key policy issues which needs due attention in land use planning and management practices.

Evolutionary characteristics of sloping cultivated land under functional diversification in mountain areas: A case of Fengjie County, China

With the rapid development of urbanization and industrialization, the rural functions in China's mountainous regions have tended to diversify, and the use of sloping cultivated land has also evolved. Exploring the coupling relationship between rural functional diversification and the evolution of sloping cultivated land is of great significance to the protection of cultivated land in mountainous areas and the sustainable development of villages. We constructed a theoretical framework to analyze the interaction between rural functional diversification and the evolution of sloping cultivated land and then verified it with Fengjie County, China. Our research results show that: the overall agricultural production function, industrial production function, leisure and tourism function, social security function, and ecological conservation function of Fengjie County continue to develop, and the diversification level of rural functions has been enhanced. The high density value areas of sloping cultivated land were more dispersed, and the area of sloping cultivated land showed a decreasing trend. The coupling coordination degree between rural functional diversification and the evolution of gentle sloping cultivated land showed a downward trend, and the ecological economic level of gentle sloping cultivated land decreased. The coupling coordination value with steep sloping cultivated land and sharp steep sloping cultivated land showed a firstly decreasing and then increasing trend, and the ecological economic level of the two kinds of cultivated land increased. The study area can be summarized into four coupling modes and different development strategies should be adopted for different coupling modes. These research methods and findings can provide a reference value for the optimal utilization of sloping cultivated land resources in other mountainous areas.

Coping with marsh floods and fires: Resilience at the pile‐dwelling site of Dispilio, Northwestern Greece

AbstractLacustrine environments are considered favorable locations for Neolithic settlements, constituting a reliable year‐round water resource, which contributes to fertile arable land, rich biodiversity, and natural protection. Living by the wetlands, however, is characterized by intensive ecological vulnerabilities, that is, floods and fire events. These recurrent episodes are difficult to trace in the occupation layers since natural processes combined with human activities can form variable mixed microenvironments. Consequently, the direct impact of these events on the biography of the settlement and the decision‐making of its inhabitants is understudied. This paper presents a high‐resolution, microstratigraphic analysis at the Neolithic pile‐dwelling settlement of Dispilio (Kastoria, northern Greece) to trace past ecological threats and unravel the resilience strategies of the lake‐dwellers against the continuously altered microenvironments. By correlating the results with regional environmental and cultural events, this paper questions the role of environmental changes as triggers for cultural modifications and considers a wide range of strategies for coping with wetland hazards.

Land and the rise of Sabaot Land Defence Force from 1991 to 2010

This research sought to assess the connection between land and the rise of the Sabaot Land Defence Force. This research was conducted in Mount Elgon Sub-county in Kapsokwony, Kaptama, Kopsiro, and Cheptais. This research utilised primary as well as secondary sources of data. Secondary data was procured from Kenyatta University Library, among other libraries. Primary data was gathered from the Kenya National Archives as well as from oral sources through interviewing the identified respondents in the field. Data instruments that were used include questionnaires and question guides. The procedures employed in collecting primary data included in-depth interviews and Focus Group Discussions. The primary oral data was analysed by first translating oral interviews from the Sabaot language to English, grouping data according to the objectives, and verifying any possible contradicting information. After that, the data was corroborated with archival and secondary data and then presented through descriptive narratives. The study identified the causes of SLDF as land scarcity, land as a birth right, leadership structure of SLDF for land claims, injustice on land leading to a sentiment of marginalisation and deplorable state presence in the region, the proliferation of weapons aiding in land protection, and finally collusion of politicians as well as government officials who had an interest in land. In conclusion, the research identified factors such as land scarcity, marginalisation, and inter-clan conflicts as the main reasons for the Sabaot Land Defence Force's emergence and rise among the people of Mount Elgon. This study recommends that the government should play a key role in dealing with land conflicts before they become a major issue leading to militia groups' formation in the future.

Spatiotemporally Mapping Non-Grain Production of Winter Wheat Using a Developed Auto-Generating Sample Algorithm on Google Earth Engine

Spatiotemporally mapping winter wheat is imperative for informing and shaping global food security policies. Traditional mapping methods heavily rely on sufficient and reliable samples obtained through labor-intensive fieldwork and manual sample collection. However, these methods are time-consuming, costly, and lack timely and continuous data collection. To address these challenges and fully leverage remote sensing big data and cloud computing platforms like Google Earth Engine (GEE), this paper developed an algorithm for Auto-Generating Winter Wheat Samples for mapping (AGWWS). The AGWWS utilizes historical samples to determine the optimal migration threshold by measuring Spectral Angle Distance (SAD), Euclidean Distance (ED), and Near-Infrared band Difference Index (NIRDI). This facilitates the auto-generation of winter wheat sample sets for the years 2000, 2005, 2010, 2015, and 2021. Approximately two-thirds of the samples were allocated for training, with the remaining one-third used for validating the mapping method, employing the One-Class Support Vector Machine (OCSVM). The Huang–Huai–Hai (HHH) Plain, a major winter wheat production region, was selected to perform the algorithm and subsequent analysis on. Different combinations of the hyper-parameters, gamma and nu, of the OCSVM based on the Gaussian Radial Basis Function Kernel were tested for each year. Following correlation analysis between the winter wheat area derived from the generated maps and the national statistical dataset at the city level, the map with the highest corresponding R2 was chosen as the AGWWS map for each year (0.77, 0.77, 0.80, 0.86, and 0.87 for 2000, 2005, 2010, 2015, and 2021, respectively). The AGWWS maps ultimately achieved an average Overall Accuracy of 81.65%. The study then explores the Non-Grain Production of Winter Wheat (NGPOWW) by analyzing winter wheat change maps from 2000–2005, 2005–2010, 2005–2010, and 2015–2021 in the HHH Plain. Despite an overall increase in the total planted area of winter wheat, the NGPOWW phenomena has led to concerning winter wheat planting marginalization. Compensatory winter wheat areas are notably situated in mountainous and suburban cultivated lands with low qualities. Consequently, despite the apparent expansion in planted areas, winter wheat production is anticipated to be adversely affected. The findings highlight the necessity for improved cultivated land protection policies monitoring the land quality of the compensation and setting strict quota limits on occupations.

Is marginalised cultivated land on the Tibetan Plateau suitable for production or ecology? An example from the northeastern Tibetan Plateau

AbstractIn the ecologically fragile alpine area of the Tibetan Plateau, some marginalised cultivated lands have more serious conflicts related to agricultural production and ecological protection than others; thus, it is of practical significance to explore the rational use of marginalised cultivated lands. In this study, Xining City and Haidong City in the northeastern part of the Tibetan Plateau were taken as the study area. Marginalised cultivated land was identified, and the vegetation photosynthesis model was used to evaluate its production function. Ecological function was evaluated in terms of soil retention, landscape connectivity and habitat maintenance. The rational use pathways of marginalised cultivated land were derived through statistical analysis and aggregation model analysis. The results showed that there were 183,489.19 ha of marginalised cultivated land in the study area; the average value of production function of marginalised cultivated land was approximately 70% of that of nonmarginalised cultivated land, and its various ecological functions reached 93.64%–117.98% of that of nonmarginalised cultivated land. In general, the distribution of production functions decreases from northwest to southeast, and the ecological functions are high in the middle and low in the surroundings. A comprehensive analysis of the production and ecological functions of marginalised cultivated land can provide a reference basis for the rational formulation of cultivated land protection policies and ecological protection policies.

Understanding variation in impacts from private protected areas across regions and protection mechanisms to inform organizational practices.

Private land protection is an important and growing tool to address biodiversity loss and climate change. Thus, better empirical evidence on the effectiveness of private land protection and organizational practices, such as targeting of lands for protection and choice of protection mechanism (i.e., fee simple land acquisition and conservation easements), is needed. We addressed this gap by estimating the impacts of The Nature Conservancy's (TNC) (a large nongovernmental organization with relatively decentralized management) conservation land acquisitions and easements from 1988 to 2016 in three regions of the United States (Mid-Atlantic, New England and New York, and California). We estimated impact in terms of avoided conversion by comparing natural land cover on 3179 protected parcels with matched unprotected parcels. Nineteen of 21 ecoregional plans used threats of agriculture and development to identify priorities for protection. When regions and protection mechanisms were pooled, on average there was no evidence of avoided conversion from 1988 to 2016. Accounting for mechanisms, TNC land acquisitions avoided conversionand easements did not. TNC's easements on parcels acquired by conservation partners did avoid conversion. Limitations of these results include focus on a singlemeasure of impact, inability to capture future avoided conversion, and low land cover change accuracy in California. Our results suggest that private land protection managers who seek to avoid land conversion in the near to medium term should increase focus on areas with higher threats. Special attention should be paid to strengthening accountability and the role of partners, improving or clarifying how easements are used, and facilitating the flow of resources to work with the greatest potential impact.

Avoiding ecosystem and social impacts of hydropower, wind, and solar in Southern Africa’s low-carbon electricity system

The scale at which low-carbon electricity will need to be deployed to meet economic growth, electrification, and climate goals in Africa is unprecedented, yet the potential land use and freshwater impacts from this massive build-out of energy infrastructure is poorly understood. In this study, we characterize low-impact onshore wind, solar photovoltaics, and hydropower potential in Southern Africa and identify the cost-optimal mix of electricity generation technologies under different sets of socio-environmental land use and freshwater constraints and carbon targets. We find substantial wind and solar potential after applying land use protections, but about 40% of planned or proposed hydropower projects face socio-environmental conflicts. Applying land and freshwater protections results in more wind, solar, and battery capacity and less hydropower capacity compared to scenarios without protections. While a carbon target favors hydropower, the amount of cost-competitively selected hydropower is at most 45% of planned or proposed hydropower capacity in any scenario—and is only 25% under socio-environmental protections. Achieving both carbon targets and socio-environmental protections results in system cost increases of 3-6%. In the absence of land and freshwater protections, environmental and social impacts from new hydropower development could be significant.

Biodiversity and ecosystem services: Complementary approach for catchment protection and land use in northeastern Poland

The concept of ecosystem services introduced a new view on the relationship between biodiversity and goods of human well-being. Are both ideas, biodiversity and ecosystem services, mutually beneficial for catchment protection? We aimed to explore how and to what extent specified the environmental and economic criteria determined the protection and urban land use intensity in the catchment in northeastern Poland. The relation between biodiversity, ecosystem services and land use intensity was made using 14 criteria that are also weights in the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) and Borda multi-criteria decision analysis by using open public data resources, such as the Topographic Objects Database, digital terrain model, forms of nature protection, the database of recognised deposits of natural resources, geological map portals, Urban Spatial Information System and information on flood hazard areas, and open-source applications across the catchment.A combined procedure including categories of land cover elements, i.e. spatial objects of the surface, land use intensity and multi-criteria decision-making model, finally determined different variants for catchment biodiversity areas, from best (Variant 15) to worst (Variant 5) from 16 variants total. The spatial results showed that biodiversity and ecosystem services show an evident decline with increased land use intensity. Biodiversity was negatively correlated with the built-up areas and intensive land use in the central part of the catchment, but positively with which concerns the initial and final reaches of the river. The main factor affecting biodiversity was the distance of the river valley sections in the catchment area from the developed space of the city centre.Results suggest that biodiversity conservation in the catchment is needed for high biodiversity and low-intensity land use. For most green and agricultural areas with multifunctional benefits and, a good state is required compromise for ecosystem services and biodiversity. The functioning of the built-up areas and intensively used for humans is described only by the value of provisioning ecosystem services.

The Emergence of Irrigated Agriculture in Semi-Arid Zones in the Face of Climate Change and Urbanization in Peri-Urban Areas in Setif, Algeria

This article aims to investigate the complex relationship between a local population and its natural and urban environment. The study area, which was previously dominated by cereal cultivation, is currently facing profitability challenges due to climate change, water scarcity, rapid urban expansion, and the overexploitation of aquifers, influenced by changes in agricultural practices, which are disrupting the local ecosystem. This study relies on three interconnected indicators, population growth, climate change effects on agriculture, and the NDVI (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index), and reveals the impact of these factors on agricultural practices. Google Earth Engine was employed to determine the urbanization and greenness indices using scripts. The significant findings of this study demonstrate the remarkable demographic growth of 49.96% during the study period (2000–2020). Furthermore, this growth has led to a new trend towards intensive farming, with a substantial increase in irrigated lands by 44.19% and a multiplication of protected crop lands by 20 times, rising from 19.88 to 405.89 hectares. Additionally, horticultural production surged by 212.4% during the same period. Moreover, groundwater levels shifted from less than 50 m in the northern regions to less than 150 and 300 m in the southern part of the study area. The water potential in the study zone cannot meet the demands of the new agricultural orientation, which tends to deplete local groundwater, potentially causing recurrent shortages of agricultural products. This study underscores the importance of incorporating agricultural production into future urban planning and development programs to maintain a renewed balance between built environments and agriculture in peri-urban areas.

Understanding the distribution patterns and underlying mechanisms of non-grain use of cultivated land in rural China

How to control the non-grain use of cultivated land (NGUCL) for the simultaneous development of food security, rural revitalization, and ecological protection has been a major topic of global concern. However, insufficient understanding of the pattern and its underlying mechanisms has posed major challenges for related policy-making. To bridge this gap, this study established a theoretical framework for NGUCL analysis and employed quantitative methods to reveal the NGUCL pattern and its mechanisms. The key finding is that there was a core–edge model of NGUCL distribution pattern from the suburbs to the remote suburbs; this was determined by a policy–market–site coupling mechanism and non-grain market location enhanced mechanism. The foremost contribution of this study is that it presents a global understanding of the core–edge model using a coexisting pattern analysis on NGUCL from the suburbs to the remote suburbs based on our understanding of non-grain growing behaviors. To strengthen control of NGUCL, we propose implementing regionally differentiated policies for cultivated land protection together with spatial planning for crop growing. We argue that the key to policy improvement is to maximize agricultural labor productivity in accordance with market demand. The findings and suggestions of this study are significant for China and other regions to promote NGUCL control and cultivated land protection.

Peculiarities of legal relations in the field of restoration of lands and soils of Ukraine damaged by the armed aggression of the Russian Federation

The article examines the peculiarities of legal relations in the field of restoration of lands and soils of Ukraine, which suffered as a result of the armed aggression of the Russian Federation. As a result of the full-scale invasion of Russia on more than a third of the territory of Ukraine, there is already or there is a risk of systemic disturbance of the surface layer of soils or their contamination (mines, oil products, unexploded ordnance, etc.). So, with the beginning of a full-scale invasion, the state of Ukraine received a new challenge - the degradation of land and soil as a result of military operations. Therefore, the problem of restoration of these natural objects has become extremely Legal relations in the field of land and soil restoration are an integral part of land legal relations and have essential features (public nature, volitional nature, dominance of the imperative method of legal regulation, specific subject composition, inequality of the parties to these legal relations, etc.). The article examines lands and soils as objects of restoration, since it is the specificity of objects that largely determines the peculiarities of legal relations in this area.
 Restoration of lands and soils is: a legally secured system of measures; aimed at returning their original qualitative state; is carried out through their reclamation, conservation, melioration and other measures provided for by law.
 Legal relations in the field of restoration of the lands and soils of Ukraine, which suffered as a result of the armed aggression of the Russian Federation, are social relations that are formed in the field of returning these natural objects to their original qualitative state, deteriorated due to the action of factors caused by military actions. Legal relations in this area have significant features, since lands and soils are non-reproducible, but renewable natural objects. The specificity of land and soil restoration is that this process is subject to their qualitative condition. Since such significant damage is caused to the lands and soils of Ukraine for the first time since the Second World War, the system of national land protection legislation needs to be reformed. The Law of Ukraine “On Land Protection” does not meet today’s needs. An urgent need today is the development and adoption of the Law of Ukraine “On Protection and Restoration of Lands and Soils”.

Soil Composition of the Tovuzchay Basin of Azerbaijan by Ecological Regions

One of the environmental problems that the relevant structures are currently closely addressing is the protection and restoration of soil fertility. In this regard, the effective and correct use of land resources in the region, as well as the protection of agricultural land, have become urgent problems. In order to organize environmental monitoring carried out on the basis of the relevant program, environmental observations of diagnostic indicators of soil fertility were carried out. Tovuzchay river basin is divided into ecological regions: watershed, transit and accumulation areas, the closedness of the territories in relation to other river basins, their separation by natural boundaries (watersheds) are factors that increase the accuracy of observations.