Land Holdings Research Articles

Resource-use management of castor (Ricinus communis L.) growers in Andhra Pradesh

A study was conducted to assess the resource-use management (RUM) behaviour of castor growers in Mahabubnagar district of Andhra Pradesh with 120 randomly selected castor growers through a pre-standardized scale. It was found that the respondents with large size of land holdings had medium to high level of RUM behaviour, while respondents with small and medium size of land holdings had low to medium level. Overall, there was low to medium level of RUM behaviour as exhibited by the castor growers. The respondents had low to medium level of management towards land, cropping system, seed, soil-moisture and nutrients, while medium to high level of management towards weeds, pests, diseases and irrigation. Seed, soil-moisture and nutrient were the primary indicators contributed towards both productivity and profitability of castor cultivation. Strategies for efficient management of these indicators are to be popularized through need-based extension efforts to improve the productivity and profitability of castor under rainfed conditions of Andhra Pradesh.

Factors affecting the use of improved chickpea seed among smallholder farmers in <em>Gondar Zuria Woreda</em>, Ethiopia

Purpose: The use of improved seeds is one of the most important factors among the others to increase the production and productivity of crops. However, the use of improved chickpea seeds by smallholder farmers remains low. These resulted in lower productivity of chickpea by smallholder farmers. The factors contributing to the low rate of use of improved chickpea seed in the study area are to be analyzed. Research Method: To achieve the objective of the study, a multi-stage sampling technique was employed. The sample size was determined using the Yamane formula, and 140 sampled households were randomly selected. A proportionate sample of the population was used to determine the size of sample from each kebele . These data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and a binary logistic regression model. Findings: The results revealed that 55.71% of respondents are users of improved chickpea seeds. The logistic regression result shows that the use of improved chickpea seed by smallholder farmers is determined by the availability and price of improved seeds, size of land holdings, participation in a field visit, frequency of extension service, proximity to the market, and attractiveness of the market price. The marginal effect result indicates that a unit change in access to improved seeds, participation in a field visit, land size, and seed cost increases the probability of using improved chickpea seed by 40.76%, 11.86%, 11.26%, and 4.27% respectively, among others. Research Limitations: The study was conducted in one geographical area using cross-sectional data. This finding does not show the trends of adoption in the study area or its implications in different parts of the region. Originality/Value: The findings of the study are novel and relatively new to the given geographical area. This study reported specific and new findings on factors that affect the use of improved chickpea seeds in the study area. The findings are important as a source of information for decision-makers, development practitioners, and researchers.

Effects of gibberellic acid, kinetin and indole butyric acid mixture on sorghum salinity tolerance and grain yield in saline-alkali coastal zone.

The development and utilization of coastal saline-alkali lands hold significant importance in mitigating the shortage of cultivated land resources in China, enhancing the agro-ecological environment in coastal saline and alkaline areas, and ensuring national food security. We set up both pot and field trials (randomized block design) at Xinxiang experimental station of Institute of Crop Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (ICS-CAAS) and Dongying Yellow River Delta Modern Agricultural Research Base in Shandong Province in 2021 and 2022, respectively. The experimental materials, Jiliang 1 and Jiliang 2, underwent seed dressing with GKI composites at concentrations of 2.5 and 5 mL·kg-1. These composites, which contained the main components of gibberellin, kinetin, and indole butyric acid, were denoted as GKI2.5 and GKI5.0, respectively. The control plots (CK) received water seed dressing. The aim was to assess the regulatory effects of GKI on salt tolerance and grain sorghum yield. Compared to CK, the GKI2.5 and GKI5.0 seed dressing treatments significantly enhanced the growth and development of the two grain sorghum varieties, increased antioxidant enzyme activity and soluble protein content of sorghum leaves, while reducing leaf malondialdehyde content. Moreover, the GKI treatments increased leaf net photosynthetic rate. Under field conditions, yields of Jiliang 1 and Jiliang 2 were enhanced by an average of 17.1% and 19.1%, respectively. In conclusion, GKI seed dressing treatment effectively promoted the growth and development of sorghum under salt stress. It enhanced the antioxidant and osmoregulatory capacities of leaves, reduced the level of membrane lipid peroxidation, and improved net photosynthetic rate of leaves, which together improved the salt tolerance and sorghum yield.

Constraints Faced by the Groundnut Growers in Adoption of Cluster Frontline Demonstration of Villupuram District

India is one of the largest producers of oilseeds in the world and occupies an important position in the Indian agricultural economy. The productivity of groundnut farming is currently declining due to pest and disease attacks, use of old and traditional low-yielding varieties. To tackle the issues demonstrations on cluster mode are essential. Cluster Frontline Demonstration (CFLD) is conducted by Subject Matter Specialists (SMSs) and scientists in a systemic manner on selected farmers field to spread the new variety and groundnut production technologies. The ICAR- KVK, Tindivanam had organized CFLDs on groundnut crop in two villages viz., Nolambur and Kilmavilangai. Therefore, the study aimed to know the profile characteristics of CFLD beneficiary farmers and to encounter the major constraints faced by groundnut growers. To get an adequate sample size, 60 CFLD beneficiaries were selected randomly for the present study. The data were collected by using a pre-tested interview schedule. Garrett’s ranking technique and percentage analysis were used to analyze the data for meaning interpretation. The majority of beneficiaries belonged to middle age category (61.66%), majority of male beneficiaries (80.00%), educated upto middle school (40.00%), land holdings of 1 to 2 ha (68.33%) as small land, 20- 30 years of farming experience in oilseeds (80.00%), participated in one training (66.67%), medium level of extension agency contact (66.67%) and mass media exposure (56.67%), 55 per cent of farmers were adopted new practices after the successful adoption of other members. The major constraints include poor labour availability, poor transport facilities, lack of proper marketing channels and lack of technical knowledge. Hence, CFLD showed that medium to high level profile characteristics and improved adoption of new technologies.

Land easements in the budget system of territorial communities

Many linear engineering and technical networks run on the lands of settlements, which are operated by enterprises and organizations of various forms of ownership and for the services of which the population of territorial communities pays appropriate funds. On the other hand, for land plots, including those on which land easements are established, the owners pay land tax in full, following the norms established by law. In most cases, enterprises, and organizations whose custody linear engineering and technical networks are used free of charge easements. That is, on parts of land holdings where linear engineering and technical networks pass, certain restrictions on the use of these lands are established following regulatory acts, and at the same time, operating organizations do not compensate the owners of land plots any costs. Therefore, the fairness problem arises compensating land plot owners for certain expenses. Local self-government bodies and state authorities use the institution of paid land easement when providing land plots for short-term or long-term use for commercial needs, etc. However, this does not apply to establishing a paid land easement for linear engineering networks. Filling local budgets is one of the essential mechanisms for developing territorial communities and individual settlements. In this aspect, searching for new opportunities to supplement the local budget is an urgent and essential problem. This study is dedicated to the search for additional financial resources for territorial communities by researching the possibilities of introducing the mechanism of paid land servitudes of linear engineering and technical networks. For this purpose, a unique technique has been developed that allows the determination of compensation to the owners of land plots for the presence of easement restrictions on their territories. The scientific novelty consists of developing a methodology for the formation of payments for easement use of land in the protection zones of linear engineering and technical networks. The practical implementation of the proposed methodology was implemented in practice when determining the fee for land easements of linear engineering and technical networks in the village of Lolyn, Kalusky region, Ivano-Frankivsk oblast. Keywords: methodology, land easement, fee, linear engineering, and technical networks.

A Rural Land Share Cooperative System for Alleviating the Small, Scattered, and Weak Dilemma in Agricultural Development: The Cases of Tangyue, Zhouchong, and Chongzhou

“Small, scattered and weak”, i.e., small-scale arable land holdings, decentralized operation, and weak effectiveness are common agricultural development problems that most developing countries face. Promoting the moderate-scale operation and modernization development of agriculture under the premise of protecting social stability is a complex and systemic process. In the evolution of China’s agricultural business model and land system reform, the Land Shareholding Cooperative System (LSCS) emerged. However, few studies have focused on the relationship between rural land institution innovation and agricultural economic development. We found great potential in this approach in solving the dilemma of “small, scattered, weak” in agricultural development, while protecting farmers’ land property rights. We described the cases of Tangyue, Zhouchong, and Chongzhou in rural China through the research method to illustrate how this occurred. This approach takes full advantage of the combination of “cooperative” and “shareholding” while alleviating the incompatibility of the historical allocation of arable land with urbanization and agricultural development. Balancing the development of factor markets and protecting the welfare of members contributes to its effective implementation. This study provides valuable examples of agricultural development in similar areas and countries.

SOCIO-ECONOMIC RELATIONS IN CENTRAL UKRAINE ON THE THRESHOLD OF AND DURING THE UKRAINIAN REVOLUTION (1881–1922): THE AGRARIAN QUESTION

The subject of the study is the analysis of economic development (agrarian relations) in Central Ukraine in the 80s of the XIX century – the first quarter of 1922. The problematic nature of the article is stipulated by the insufficient attention of specialists to the economic history of this region. The publication deals with the socio-economic sphere of regional history. Methodology. The study is based on the use of interdisciplinary methodological optics: economics, history, geography, and law. The purpose of the article is to analyse the approaches to solving the agrarian issue in Central Ukraine in the post-reform period and during the liberation struggle of 1917-1922. The article focuses on various aspects of socio-economic development in the late XIX century – the first quarter of the XX century. Conclusions. In the 80s and 90s of the XIX century, significant economic experiments took place in Central Ukraine aimed at solving the agrarian issue and meeting the economic needs of the peasantry. They were initiated by both representatives of the authorities – zemstvo officials – and public figures, such as M. Levytskyi. These attempts were partially successful economically: the peasantry of Kherson, Yekaterinoslav, Kyiv, and Poltava provinces had larger land holdings than in other areas, and were more entrepreneurial, as evidenced by their support for the cooperative movement. The second part of the article deals with the analysis of socio-economic relations during the liberation struggle of 1917-1922. The analysis of this struggle suggests that the peasantry of Central Ukraine was the driving force behind various insurgent movements. There were several major uprisings on socio-economic grounds in these areas, which were caused by the Ukrainian peasantry's rejection of the economic experiments of the Russian occupiers: the Bolsheviks and their opponents, the White Guards. The interests of the Ukrainian peasantry were partially satisfied by the introduction of a new economic policy in 1921, which contributed to the gradual decline of the insurgency.

Supply Chain Management of Apple Production and Marketing in Kinnaur District of Himachal Pradesh

Present study was conducted to assess the impact of Supply chain Management of Apple Production and study the existing status of Apple production and marketing in Kinnaur district of Himchal Pradesh, India using data for the period 2021–2022. To identify the objectives of the study, a sample of 200 respondents was interviewed through structured interview schedule. The orchard area was 79.26% in Kinnaur, in which irrigated and un-irrigated land was 32.71 and 67.29%. 44% of the sampled respondents were in the category of marginal land holdings, small land holdings were possessed by 46.00%, medium were possessed by 9.00% and large land holdings only 1.00% of sampled household in study area. The various input supply chains identified in apple production in the study area are Channel-I, Channel- II, Channel- III. . Out of all three channels, the channel III is found to be efficient with modified market efficiency of 47.3%. The producer share for consumer’s rupees is 81.81% with net marketing margin was 180 with price spread value of 380. The total cost for production of apple on one hectare of land holdings was observed to be ` 51258 on overall basis. 77.00% of the respondents were aware about the constraints in supply chain apple producers were not so aware about the effective supply chain management and it can be reduced by the efficient supply chain management.

Indigenous collective land titling and the creation of leftovers: Insights from Paraguay and Cambodia

AbstractCollective land titling often drags on for decades, while private land concessions and holdings do not face the same problem, creating ‘leftovers’ of land available for Indigenous peoples to attempt to collectively title. In two ethnographic case studies in Cambodia and Paraguay, we analyse community‐based Indigenous land titling by focusing on the on‐the‐ground dynamics of property relations, Indigenous livelihood shifts and ecological change. In both countries, large agricultural players implemented a staggering change in local landscapes through deforestation, configuring new realities that in turn feed into local environments and titling processes. Adapting their livelihoods to living in the leftovers, in Cambodia, the Indigenous Bunong shifted from rice to rubber as they navigated the slow titling process. In Paraguay, some Indigenous Guarani shifted from corn to cattle by renting out their collectively titled land. The case studies show that the liberal titling approach to secure Indigenous lands overestimates the ability of title to remove land from capitalist logics such as the push to rent or sell, while some spaces of autonomy are opened. We critique the liberal approaches to formalising title, where Indigenous struggles for their ways of life are funnelled into fighting for collective property.

A Review of Building Community Resilience for Stress Free Future Farming

Farming in India, despite numerous challenges, continues to play a pivotal role in feeding the nation's vast population. Recognizing the need for resilient agricultural practices to sustain the profession and secure the future of farming, explore the importance of adopting to change in the agricultural sector. The review highlights the current challenges faced by Indian agriculture, including climate change, diminishing natural resources, fragmented land holdings, lack of access to technology and information, and socio-economic disparities. These challenges pose significant threats to the sustainability and viability of farming, necessitating proactive measures to build resilience. To make farming stress-free and attractive for future generations, the review proposes various strategies and approaches that can enhance agricultural resilience. These include the adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices, such as conservation agriculture, precision farming, and agroforestry, to mitigate the adverse effects of climate change. Additionally, the promotion of sustainable water management techniques, efficient irrigation systems, and watershed management can address the issue of diminishing water resources. Recognizing the role of policy frameworks in fostering agricultural resilience, the paper underscores the need for government support in the form of favourable policies, subsidies, and incentives.

Women’s land ownership in India: Evidence from digital land records

Women’s land ownership in India: Evidence from digital land records

Effect of Socio-Economic and Demographic Characteristics on Agricultural Labourers Migration in Bidar District of Karnataka, India

The study was carried out in the Bidar district of Kalyana Karnataka where a people's migration is big. Three talukas were chosen based on the highest labour force from the district. In specific, they were Bidar, Bhalki, and Basavakalyan. In random selection, four villages from each taluka were selected. The primary data was taken via the personal interview process from a total of 240 samples randomly from every taluka for the experiment, with 80 samples. The current study was an attempt to obtain the different motives for the migration of farm labourers from the district of Bidar and to create the correct models for migration data. Tabular research was led in the sample villages of Bidar district for the specific characteristics of migrants and non-migrants. The tabular research found that about 50 percent of people from all talukas migrate from sample households. The tabular analysis exposed that 44 per cent of individual migration compared to the entire family migration and individuals belonging to the 15 – 30-year age group migrate more. Research also found that agricultural labourers in the villages are fleeing because of underemployment and unemployment. Agricultural families are not successful, so many leave with smaller land holdings for better opportunities. Also, the current study attempted to know the nature and magnitude of the association between the agricultural labourers migration in the bidar district and their socioeconomic characteristics. Results of the correlation coefficients of migration over other variables viz. land holding, family size, education, income including migrants income (IMI), and income excluding migrants income (EMI) revealed a significant relationship among land holding and migration. Along with family net income and relocation, the important relationship still occurred. Even between migration and family size.

Analyzing Gender Disparities in Land Ownership and Wage Rates in Indian Agriculture: An Empirical Study

The Indian economy relies heavily on agriculture, employing approximately 48 percent of the workforce, including men, women, and children. Women contribute significantly as agricultural workers, and their role is gradually gaining recognition, although certain obstacles persist. This study aims to analyze the trend of women's operational land holdings and average land holding sizes from 1995 to 2016, using secondary data. The findings reveal a negative growth rate in the number of land holdings and average holding sizes for women. This indicates a substantial gap between men and women in terms of land ownership, which hampers women's potential as farmers. It also suggests that women may have limited knowledge about their land rights. Additionally, the study examines wage disparities between male and female laborers across different agricultural tasks. In the realm of sowing, gender inequality was observed, with the highest wage gap occurring in 2005-06 when female earnings were 31 percent lower than those of male laborers. By 2019-20, the disparity had decreased to 17.97 percent. In the case of threshing, the wage gap ranged from 20 percent to 15 percent, indicating a relatively smaller disparity. Overall, women tend to receive lower wages compared to men in various agricultural activities. However, the study reveals a positive trend of increasing wages for female laborers, growing at a faster rate than wages for male laborers over time. Hence, it is crucial to acknowledge and appreciate women's roles in agriculture while addressing the existing gender-based wage gap. Efforts should be made to promote gender equality and empower women in the agricultural sector. This involves tackling disparities in land ownership and improving women's understanding of their land rights. Additionally, it is essential to work towards ensuring fair wage rates for women and implementing equal pay for equal work. By recognizing and addressing these challenges, the agricultural sector can foster gender equality and create a more inclusive and equitable environment for women engaged in farming.

Estimation of the Extent of the Vulnerability of Agriculture to Climate Change Using Analytical and Deep-Learning Methods: A Case Study in Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh

Climate stress poses a threat to the agricultural sector, which is vital for both the economy and livelihoods in general. Quantifying its risk to food security, livelihoods, and sustainability is crucial. This study proposes a framework to estimate the impact climate stress on agriculture in terms of three objectives: assessing the regional vulnerability (exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity), analysing the climate variability, and measuring agricultural performance under climatic stress. The vulnerability of twenty-two sub-regions in Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh is assessed using indicators to determine the collective susceptibility of the agricultural framework to climate change. An index-based approach with min–max normalization is employed, ranking the districts based on their relative performances across vulnerability indicators. This work assesses the impact of socio-economic and climatic indicators on the performance of agricultural growth using the benchmark Ricardian approach. The parameters of the agricultural growth function are estimated using a linear combination of socio-economic and exposure variables. Lastly, the forecasted trends of climatic variables are examined using a long short-term memory (LSTM)-based recurrent neural network, providing an annual estimate of climate variability. The results indicate a negative impact of annual minimum temperature and decreasing land holdings on agricultural GDP, while cropping intensity, rural literacy, and credit facilities have positive effects. Budgam, Ganderbal, and Bandipora districts exhibit higher vulnerability due to factors such as low literacy rates, high population density, and extensive rice cultivation. Conversely, Kargil, Rajouri, and Poonch districts show lower vulnerability due to the low population density and lower level of institutional development. We observe an increasing trend of minimum temperature across the region. The proposed LSTM synthesizes a predictive estimate across five essential climate variables with an average overall root mean squared error (RMSE) of 0.91, outperforming the benchmark ARIMA and exponential-smoothing models by 32–48%. These findings can guide policymakers and stakeholders in developing strategies to mitigate climate stress on agriculture and enhance resilience.

Factors Militating against Adoption of Solar Water Pump Sets in the Selected Area of Chhattisgarh, India

In the agricultural sector, the highest electricity use goes to irrigation pump sets. Solar pump sets are a renewable source of energy that can replace existing diesel- and electricity-based pump sets. The Sour Sujala Yojna was launched by the Prime Minister to provide solar-powered irrigation pumps to farmers at a subsidized price. 56362 solar water pump sets were installed from 2016 to 2019 in Chhattisgarh state. In the study area, sample farmers were facing two major problems: the solar pump was not working during cloudy days, and second "low farm income". Rank 3 was "small land holdings," and through the solar pump irrigation, less area was covered, ranking 4. There is a maintenance problem that is minor or negligible. To solve the problem, a battery charge system with a solar pump should be added. and the water tank was fixed and stored above 20 meters. A solar pump is a renewable source of energy. So it does not affect nature. It is the best source of irrigation for future energy savings.

Effect of Cooperative Membership on Performance of Farmers: Evidence of Cereal Farmers from Plain Region (Terai) of Nepal

Developing cooperatives is one of the important approaches to improve the farmer’s performance. In this paper we used the data collected from western plain of Nepal and applied an endogenous switch regression model in order to study the relationship of farmers’ membership in cooperative with benefit cost ratio of rice and wheat production. The findings show high benefit cost ratio for cooperative farmers in both rice and wheat. The findings also reveal higher amount of inputs use among the cooperative farmers as compared to the non-cooperative farmers. The disaggregation based on land area shows that farmers with small landholdings are more benefited from cooperative however cooperative membership evidence is more in farmers with higher land holdings. Our findings highlight that smallholdersshould be provided with assistance to be involved in cooperatives for higher benefit from cereal farming.

Relationship between socio economic profiles of dairy farmers with extent of adoption of improved dairy farming practices in Kumaon division of Uttarakhand.

Livestock sector contributes 4.11 per cent GDP. According to United States Department Agriculture 2018, 80 million households were engaged in dairy farming and majority of them are small scale, marginal farmers. The dairy farming has been considered as a potential means of employment and socio-economic development for people in rural areas. Uttarakhand trails behind from highest milk producing states due to less growth rate in milk production focused should be given to the improved dairy farming to increase milk production and development of dairy industry. The present study was conducted in Kumaon division of Uttarakhand state to find out the relationship between socio economic profile of dairy farmers with their extent of adoption of improved dairy farming practices. Udham Singh Nagar district was selected as for the study. Total 100 respondents from these villages were selected. It was resulted that respondents with higher education, higher land holdings, higher dairy farming experience, higher annual income, higher milk production higher social participation, higher risk preference and higher economic motivation tends to have more extent of adoption of improved dairy farming practices as they are found to have a significant and positive relationship with extent of adoption of dairy farming practices.

Aging, land fragmentation, and banana farmers' adoption of biopesticides in China.

Encouraging farmers to adopt biopesticides is a crucial strategy for protecting the ecological environment and achieving sustainable agricultural development. This study utilizes data from a micro-survey of 454 banana farmers from Hainan Province of China and employs a logit model to analyze the effects of aging, land fragmentation, and their interactions on farmers' adoption of biopesticides, as well as the heterogeneity of farmers in different household life cycles. The findings reveal that aging and land fragmentation both hinder biopesticide adoption, with farmers experiencing higher levels of aging and more fragmented land holdings being less likely to utilize biopesticides in banana production. Mechanism analysis uncovers an interaction effect between aging and land fragmentation that hampers biopesticide adoption. Furthermore, the effects of aging, land fragmentation, and their interaction on biopesticide adoption behavior vary across farmers in different family life cycles. Specifically, aging negatively affects biopesticide adoption behavior for farmers in support households, while land fragmentation negatively influences farmers in dependency and burden households. The interaction between aging and land fragmentation adversely affects farmers in burden households. Our findings highlight the importance of aging agricultural labor and land fragmentation to promote green agriculture in China and call for more relevant policies to encourage farmers with different household life cycles to adopt biopesticides in farming practices.

Economic Analysis of Shiitake Mushroom Cultivation as an Agribusiness Enterprise in India

"With a great deal of constraints such as heavy dependence on weather, small and fragmented land holdings, depleting resource, demand shift etc. faced by traditional Indian agriculture, farmers are shifting towards allied enterprises. Mushroom is one such enterprise which provides remunerative and nutritive produce with less-land and investment requirements. Hence, the present study assessed the economic performance of the Shiitake mushroom production in terms of cost & return analysis, viability analysis and BEP assessment using primary data. The overall net returns were ` 235/ bag/ cycle of Shiitake with rate of return on capital of 1.93 showing the economic viability of the enterprise. It was also found that larger units of Shiitake mushroom were more viable and economically sound as compared to smaller and medium units. Since lesser land and other resources are required for Shiitake mushroom with higher returns and good nutritive value, such mushrooms ought to be promoted for adoption at large scale to alleviate poverty and nutritional insecurity of vulnerable Indian population."

The Knowledge of Improved Onion Production Practices of Farmers in Gaya, District in Bihar

A study was conducted in Gaya District of Bihar during the 2022-23 period to assess the level of knowledge among farmers regarding improved onion production practices. The study selected a total of 120 respondents from five villages within the Bodhgaya block, based on the high concentration of onion growers in the district. The data was collected through personnel interviews using a pre-structured interview schedule and subsequently analyzed using appropriate statistical methods. The findings revealed that the majority of respondents (62.5%) belonged to the middle age range, and 43.33% of them had marginal land holdings. Most respondents had a moderate level of extension contact, scientific orientation, risk orientation, and economic motivation. Additionally, 64.17% of the respondents exhibited a medium level of knowledge regarding onion production practices. The respondents displayed a good understanding of topics such as soil types, ploughing, farmyard manure (FYM) application, onion varieties, seed treatment, sowing time, nursery transplanting, seed rate, weeding and hoeing, and the suitable season for growing and harvesting onions. However, they had relatively less knowledge about seed treatment and nursery transplanting. Furthermore, factors such as age, educational qualifications, family size, housing patterns, land holdings, annual income, extension contact, source of information, scientific orientation, economic motivation, and risk-bearing capacity showed positive and significant correlations with the knowledge levels of onion growers. In summary, the study demonstrated that farmers in the Gaya District of Bihar had varying levels of knowledge regarding improved onion production practices. While they possessed a good understanding of certain aspects, there were areas where their knowledge could be further enhanced.