L2 Classroom Research Articles

Effectiveness of Subtitles in L2 Classrooms: A Meta-Analysis Study

The use of subtitles in language-learning environments has received considerable attention. Nevertheless, conclusive findings have yet to be reached regarding the effectiveness of integrating subtitles into L2 classrooms. This meta-analysis examined the overall effectiveness of subtitles to enhance learners’ L2. A total of 26 experimental studies conducted between 2010 and 2022 were analyzed to examine the performance of L2 classroom learners based on integrating subtitles as a teaching/learning tool, compared to learners who did not use subtitles. A meta-analysis investigated how effect sizes varied depending on L2 skills (listening, speaking, reading, writing, grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation), institutional level (school, university, and language institute), participants’ native language (L1), language proficiency, and implementation mode. The results indicated that integrating subtitles into L2 classrooms have a medium effect size (d = 0.69), and the effect sizes of different variables affecting the use of subtitles in language learning are reported. Several pedagogical implications are discussed in light of the findings, which can help promote the successful integration of subtitles in L2 classrooms.

Compiled by AILA ReN coordinator

Compiled by AILA ReN coordinator

On the construct and perceptual validity measures of L1-based vs. L2-based elicitation as a measure of L2 classroom performance assessment

This study aimed at investigating the English as a foreign language (EFL) learners’ perceptions of L1-based and L2-based elicitations in the English classroom employing an explanatory sequential mixed-method design. Ninety-seven Iranian intermediate EFL learners of English have been selected from Islamic Azad University (Science and Research Branch) in Tehran Province using a convenient sampling method. Of these, in the qualitative phase, 15 individuals were selected through a convenience sampling method as the focus group (N = 15; n = 8 for the L1 group and n = 7 for the L2 group). In the quantitative phase, 90 intermediate EFL learners were selected. The selected participants’ L2 performances were assessed through L1-based and L2-based elicitation techniques. They completed two validated researcher-made questionnaires to capture their perceptions of the elicitation techniques. Accordingly, five separate exploratory factor analyses were run to investigate the underlying constructs of the five components of the L1-based and L2-based perception questionnaires, the results of which showed that the correlation matrices were not singular and there were perfect correlations among all variables of L1-based and L2-based perception questionnaires. The findings show that the majority of respondents prefer to use their L2 in speaking classes and believe that L2 should be the prior language in general speaking classes. More than two-thirds of the respondents prefer to use L2 when they want to communicate with each other inside and outside of the classroom and prefer to use L2 in doing their assignments or performing orally in class. More than half of the respondents prefer to use L2 in assessment sessions.

Vietnamese university EFL teachers’ and students’ beliefs and teachers’ practices regarding classroom assessment

This study investigates Vietnamese university EFL teachers’ and students’ beliefs and teachers’ practices regarding classroom assessment. Data were collected from a questionnaire administered to 455 participants (104 teachers and 351 students), interviews with nine teachers and twelve students, and 18 observations of 90-min lessons in five universities in Vietnam. In general, the teachers were aware of all assessment types in the current literature. They dominantly used interactive scaffolding and performance assessment. They also denoted some contextual factors as barriers to their assessment practices, leading to their seeming negligence of other classroom assessment types in their practices. The students preferred formative assessment and some assessment tasks (e.g., group work), while the teachers believed that summative assessment could engage students in learning and associated performance assessment with a summative assessment. Implications for L2 classroom assessment practices are discussed.

Classroom silence and learner‐initiated repair: Using conversation analysis–informed material design to develop interactional repertoires

AbstractThis article explores the use of conversation analysis (CA)–informed speaking task design to develop second language (L2) learners' interactional repertoires in L2 classrooms. The study draws on the voices of teachers and Japanese learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) who encountered difficulties or dilemmas in L2 interaction due to cross‐culturally different interactional rules. It focuses on developing L2 learners' repair strategies to enhance their interactional repertoires in relation to the reasons behind classroom silence. The study regards silence and learner‐initiated repair as intertwined interactional resources frequently occurring within the same sequence but with distinct functions. Silence functions as an interactional cue, preluding forthcoming repair, whereas repair practices can play a crucial role in the progress of interaction. CA‐informed pedagogical approaches help learners to self‐mediate classroom silence and thereby promote interaction, by encouraging them to use repair strategies. This study presents a framework for developing CA‐informed material through a needs analysis, reflective observation of L2 interaction, and learner‐initiated repair. It aims to raise awareness of essential interactional repertoires rarely explored in English language teaching (ELT) material design. It suggests that ELT material adopting CA perspectives can be an indispensable bridge mediating classroom interaction.

Challenges and Complexities in Teacher Conceptualization of Dynamic Assessment in the L2 Classroom: A Case Study in Türkiye

Dynamic assessment is a dialectic procedure requiring teachers to assess learners’ progress by paying attention to students’ errors while providing graduated prompts to help them fix them. Although previous studies have focused on the teachers’ competence in carrying out the dynamic assessment, this case study explores the dynamic assessment conceptualization of two English language teachers. Data were gathered through video-recorded sessions, reflective reports, semi-structured interviews, and classroom observations. Results showed that while one of the teachers reconceptualized her role as a graduated prompt provider, the other teacher resisted adopting any roles that dynamic assessment requires. The study implies careful consideration of personal and contextual factors shaping teachers’ assumptions to make a change in teacher practice.

Conceptualizing digital multimodal composing competence in L2 classroom: a qualitative inquiry

While research on digital multimodal composing (DMC) has been skewed towards the instructional design and affordances of DMC for L2 learners, there is a wider need to develop conceptual models of L2 DMC competence, with which L2 learners can successfully design DMC works and respond to the multimodal reading and writing demands of the digital era. To date, the studies on DMC competence have primarily taken an etic approach to identifying the salient features of effective DMC samples or examining teachers’ perceptions of L2 student DMC competence. Few, however, have taken an emic approach to capturing the DMC competence from the perspective of L2 learners who have first-hand participatory experiences in designing DMC works. Therefore, the present study addresses the research gap by taking an emic approach to examining L2 student DMC competence through student focus group interviews with ten groups of students, classroom observations of student self and peer feedback on digital multimodal compositions, and DMC sample analysis. The clarification of L2 DMC competence can guide the measurement and instruction of L2 DMC competence, promote the integration of DMC competence into the L2 curriculum, and drive L2 learners to engage with self-assessment of DMC competence to develop their DMC competence.

From self-regulated learning to computer-delivered integrated speaking testing: Does monitoring always monitor?

Despite the salience of monitoring in self-regulated learning (SRL) and foreign and/or second language (L2) speech production in non-testing conditions, little is known about the metacognitive construct in testing contexts and its effects on learner performance. Given the reciprocal effects between L2 testing and L2 learning, a research effort in monitoring working in speaking tests, in particular computer-delivered integrated speaking tests, a testing format that has been advocated as an internal part of L2 classroom instruction and represents the future direction of L2 testing, is warranted. This study, therefore, serves as such an effort through investigating the use of monitoring by 95 Chinese English as foreign language (EFL) learners on a self-reported questionnaire after they performed three computer-delivered integrated speaking test tasks. Descriptive analysis followed by Hierarchical Linear Modelling (HLM) testing reveals that monitoring was used in a high-frequency manner, but it exerted no substantial effects on learner performance. Primarily, the results are expected to provide pedagogical implications for SRL: while fostering self-regulating learners, especially self-monitoring L2 speakers, it is necessary for L2 teachers to purposefully reduplicate testing conditions in their classroom instructions for helping the self-regulating learners be equally self-regulating test-takers. Moreover, the results are hoped to offer some insights into L2 testing through the perspective of self-monitoring, one proposed component of strategic competence, a construct that has been extensively acknowledged to reflect the essence of L2 testing.

Evolution is an arc along a timeline

AbstractGrowing evidence shows the role of teachers gestures not only in L2 learning (Stam & Tellier, 2021) but also in supporting learning in the L1 classroom (Alibali et al., 2014;Crowder, 1996;Wilson et al., 2014). The current study aims at contributing to this last perspective. Based on data from a 3rd grade plurilingual classroom in an Italian school, it observes the ‘catchments’ (McNeill, 2000) in teacher’s gesticulation during a cycle of lessons on “The origin of life”. The analysis identifies conceptual components based on thetime is spacemetaphor associated with gestures, and observes their alignment with lexical items – either technical or common words (evolution, ages, ancestors, archaic;change, back, old) – in speech. The gesture-word association supports both the conceptualization of the notions and the acquisition of the related lexicon: gestures connect recurring concepts to their different verbalisations, ensuring a conceptually coherent representation over the lesson; they establish synonimic relations between technical and common words; and they can also work as memory triggers towards and between concepts and lexical units.

Digital school or online game? Factors determining 3D virtual worlds in language classrooms for pre-service teachers

ABSTRACT A three-dimensional virtual world (henceforth, 3DVW) is a novel phenomenon with enormous potential as a virtual community for broadening meaningful life experiences. Previous 3DVW research, however, has not addressed the determinants that influence L2 students’ expectations. The primary goal of this study was to employ a combination of exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to identify significant factors impacting 3DVW in the next-normal L2 classrooms. Drawing on the empirical research, a countrywide sample of 1174 student teachers completed a 50-item questionnaire to investigate the essential features of 3DVW in relation to language learning and instruction. Half of the respondents were subjected to exploratory factor analysis (EFA), while the other half were retained for CFA. The findings of EFA indicated that a five-factor model of the 3DVW best explains the data: (1) target language practice, (2) collaboration, (3) authentic environment, (4) engagement, and (5) self-control. CFA was a good fit, bolstering the five-factor solution. Overall, the reliability and validity offered by these factors were satisfactory. The inherent limitations and future research directions are highlighted.

Applying control-value theory for examining multiple emotions in L2 classrooms: Validating the Achievement Emotions Questionnaire – Second Language Learning

This study used Pekrun’s control-value theory (CVT) as a framework to validate the Achievement Emotion Questionnaire – Second Language Learning (AEQ-L2L) for assessing eight student emotions in second language (L2) learning. We tested and validated the instrument in two samples using three waves of data, with a total number of 1,021 Chinese university students. Item and scale statistics indicate the AEQ-L2L is reliable. Moreover, single- and multi-group confirmatory factor analysis supported the hierarchical four-factor component structure of L2 emotions in and across the two student groups. Furthermore, multi-model comparison indicated that language emotions are best represented by considering both the distinctiveness of the eight examined emotions and their component structure. Finally, latent correlation analysis demonstrated the external validity of the AEQ-L2L in terms of linkages with appraisals, motivation and language achievement. Findings are discussed by highlighting the unique value of the AEQ-L2L for investigating a broad range of emotions in language education.

The Effectiveness of Using Drama-based Activities in English L2 Classroom

This paper aims to develop understanding of EFL teachers’ educational reflective practice in the context of international schools and understand how the boundaries of knowledge and practice are advanced through research. It explored the feasibility, strengths, and challenges of implementing drama-based pedagogical method in English L2 classroom in international education settings in China. Out of ethical consideration, the author must emphasize here that the research is hypothetical, and it will not be carried out using my learners.

Language learning activities in the Spanish L2 classroom related to a task-based framework: What types are the most commonly occurring according to Swedish learners?

The present study investigates language learners’ perceptions of what types of language learning activities they carry out in the Spanish second language (L2) classroom and what activities are the most common ones. A further aim is to investigate how the activities align with a model based on task-based language teaching. The group studied are Swedish learners of Spanish as L2 in a Swedish setting, where out of class exposure to first language (L1) Spanish is generally limited. The activities carried out in class are therefore expected to have a high impact on learners’ L2 acquisition in Spanish. The participants were tested after finishing secondary school. The reported learning activities, which in the long run should lead to goal attainment according to the national curriculum, were ranked and classified. The activity types were then graded along the scale explicit/analytic – implicit/experiential, according to a model based on task-based language teaching, an approach that is closely related to the action-oriented view of language, central to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages and the Swedish syllabus. Ninety-nine learners were included in the study, which is based on quantitative data consisting in self-report questionnaires in which participants estimate what activities they have typically been involved in. Results show a dominance of activity types based on a structural view of language with focus-on-form rather than on meaningful communication, and a dominance of writing-based activities. The study also has direct implications for the classroom, where it points to the importance of including more communicative oral activities without the support from writing in the teaching.

The facilitative use of learner-initiated translanguaging in Japanese EFL contexts

Abstract This study explores the facilitative use of learner-initiated translanguaging and teacher responsiveness to its use in 68 dyads of conversational interaction between a teacher and individual students in tertiary Japanese EFL contexts. Adopting conversation analysis as an analytical framework, it aims to extend our understanding of the use of learner-initiated translanguaging and teacher responsiveness to translanguaging as an important interactional resource for learners to achieve interactional goals. The study identifies eight facilitative uses of L1. On the one hand, these uses contribute to the progressivity of talk as self-addressed translanguaging. On the other, they support intersubjectivity as co-constructed translanguaging in L2 interaction. These uses include (1) connectives for topic management; (2) floor-holding devices; (3) explicit word searches; (4) lexical gap fillers; (5) understanding displays; (6) clarification requests; (7) confirmation checks; and (8) explicit request for assistance. The study also reveals that learners’ self-initiated repair using L1 was frequently observed and that its use was intertwined with translanguaging in its functionality in discourse for meaning-making as a discursive practice. This study suggests that the use of translanguaging in the L2 classroom can be an indispensable tool to optimise learners’ classroom interactional competence.

Social justice in the language classroom: a roadmap for lower-division Spanish curricula

ABSTRACT This study investigates 70 university participants’ selection of topic and acceptability relating to the explicit inclusion of social justice topics in intermediate language courses in universities in the United States. This study draws from the Critical Pedagogy and Task-Based Language Teaching as frameworks in the second language (L2) classroom. Participants enrolled in intermediate-level Spanish courses completed a series of projects in which tasks centered on social justice topics of their choosing. Qualitative data analysis revealed that language learners perceived the projects as opportunities to use real world, authentic language with the purpose of communicating in the target language. Learners reported that the incorporation of social justice in the L2 classroom provided new, meaningful learning while they developed greater awareness of issues affecting the world and acquired vocabulary and speaking skills. As a result of this study, findings support inclusion of social justice topics, even in lower-division courses.

EFL Teachers’ Perceptions on the Use of L1 in EFL Classroom: A Case Study of Junior High School Level

Since its independence, the Indonesian government has recognized English as one of the most important international languages for communication. As a result, the government has suggested that English become a mandatory subject in Junior High School. According to Nurkamto (2003), English is taught and utilized as a foreign language in Indonesia (FL). Bahasa Indonesia is our native or first language (L1). As a result, the teachers' perceptions of using L1 in the classroom are more appealing to discuss. The qualitative case study approach was employed in this study to evaluate teachers' perceptions about the use of LI in the EFL classroom. The researcher employed interviews to collect data for this study. The interview was conducted once in order to obtain information on the teachers' perceptions about the use of L1 in the EFL classroom. Because they had been teaching for several years, the researcher selected three English teachers from SMP NEGERI 3 Muncar to participate in this study. They also have a lot of experience attending workshops and seminars to further their professional growth. In assessing the data, the researcher used Creswell's (2012) model

L1 As a Tool For Reducing the Affective Filter

The utilization of the first language (L1) as an instructional tool in second language (L2) classrooms has sparked an intense debate in the realm of language education. This essay aims to delve further into the multifaceted discourse surrounding the use of L1 in L2 classrooms, particularly within the context of adult English as a second/foreign language (ESL/EFL) teaching. To provide comprehensive insights into the implementation of L1 in L2 classrooms, the essay draws upon examples from the authors’ pedagogical experiences, encompassing roughly 33 hours of ESL instruction within an agency affiliated with the University of Pennsylvania, United States. Furthermore, this essay employs relevant theories from the three primary fields of Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL), which include second language development, language use, and language pedagogy. By synthesizing these theories and exemplars, this essay aims to shed light on the intricate nuances of utilizing L1 as an instructional tool in L2 classrooms, and ultimately to inform and enhance pedagogical practices in the field of ESL/EFL instruction.

Artificial intelligence in the L2 classroom: Implications and challenges on ethics and equity in higher education: A 21st century Pandora's box

The purpose of this research was to investigate attitudes of both students and teachers concerning Artificial Intelligence (AI) tools in the L2 classroom. The study was a descriptive, qualitative, mixedmethods case study whose data were taken from a purposive, convenient sample at a private, English-speaking university during the Summer Semester 2023 in Beirut, Lebanon. Data collection primarily involved an online survey on Google forms which was given to a sample of 49 students taking a research-based English 202 course of which 46 were completed. Afterwards, six English teachers and six students were chosen based on their voluntary will to participate in individual interviews for the former and semi-structured focus group interviews for the latter. The findings revealed that approximately 85% of students did indeed use AI unethically to get ideas for their assignments, assist them in their projects' “blue-prints” or do their assignments/projects altogether. The findings also revealed that a “love/hate” relationship seemed to dictate students' relationships with AI, where students did indeed make use of AI but were distrusting of it for privacy and equity concerns. Finally, findings also revealed that most of the interviewed instructors' readiness to undergo training for AI was more to monitor students' potential misuse of it. The article purposes a suggestive revamping of course learning objectives due to students' inclinations to misuse AI to do their coursework with 89.4% of students willing to use AI to complete their coursework should university punitive measures be removed; furthermore, the article equally proposes future research investigating the impact and use of AI in the higher educational classroom on student performance and that it be used with a “grain of salt” as it may unleash a Pandora's box of future generations graduating without the necessary know-how in delicate professions of medicine, nursing, engineering, architecture among others.

Engagement in initiation, response, and feedback in L2 classroom interactions

Engagement in the L2 classroom is consequential for enhancing the quality of L2 learning experiences; however, the exploration of engagement in the Initiation, Response, and Feedback (IRF) cycles has received scant attention in L2 pedagogy. This study reports on research, examining engagement in Initiation, Response, and Feedback moves in the IRF cycles. Video recordings and questionnaires were used to collect data from ten EFL classes, being directed by eight teachers, with 73 learners. Using a post-interaction questionnaire and conversation analysis of classroom interactions, the analysis of the data revealed 784 triadic cycles out of which 493 moves embodied engagement. The data showed that not only do the Response and Feedback stages afford L2 learners the opportunity to deliberate on Form-focused language-related episodes (F-LREs), Lexis-focused LREs (L-LREs), and Mechanical LREs (M-LREs), but they also promote social and affective engagement. The comments on the questionnaire also revealed a deeper understanding of the participants’ affective engagement. The findings revealed that certain features of the IRF cycles and peers’ contributions encourage engagement during the IRF cycles. The results also demonstrated that scaffolding, mutuality, reciprocity, back-channeling, and commenting on preceding contributions made L2 learners socially engaged. The analysis suggests that the IRF cycles can create ad-hoc chances for engagement in L2 classroom interactions.

Empowering Students Through the Construction of a Translanguaging Space in an English as a First Language Classroom

Abstract Despite the extensive research on translanguaging in bi/multilingual classrooms, research on the context of first language (L1) classrooms remains scarce. This study fills the research gap by examining how a translanguaging space was created in an L1 classroom to prepare students to inhabit a world with different linguistic and cultural practices. The data were based on a linguistic ethnographic project in a first-grade L1 English Language Arts classroom in the U.S. Multimodal Conversation Analysis and Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis methods were employed for data analysis. This study revealed that such a translanguaging space encouraged students to view diverse languages as resources and appreciate linguistic and cultural diversity in the community. The teacher’s ability to create a translanguaging space for her L1 English students was shaped by the pedagogical translanguaging knowledge gained from her teacher training programme. As such, we posit the significance for all pre- and in-service teachers to acquire knowledge of translanguaging to develop students’ social-emotional well-being and their identities as citizens in this multilingual and multicultural world.