L2 Classroom Research Articles

Emotion and cognition are two wings of the same bird: Insights into academic emotion regulation, critical thinking, self-efficacy beliefs, academic resilience, and academic engagement in Iranian EFL context

Academic emotion regulation (AER), critical thinking (CT), self-efficacy belief (S-EB), academic resilience (AR), and academic engagement (AE) are all important factors for the success of university students, but their connections have not been thoroughly investigated in Iran. This study aimed to address this research gap by exploring the impact of AER and CT on the state of S-EB, AR, and AE among university students in the English as a foreign language (EFL) context of Iran. The Academic Emotion Regulation Questionnaire, the Watson Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal Form A, the Self-efficacy Scale, the Academic Resilience Scale, and the SInAPSi Academic Engagement Scale were administered to 411 Iranian EFL university students. The results of structural equation modeling demonstrated that high levels of AER were associated with higher levels of S-EB, AR, and AE. Additionally, CT was found to positively impact S-EB, AR, and AE. The findings contribute to the understanding of the relationships between AER, CT, S-EB, AR, and AE and have practical implications for the implementation of AER and CT in L2 classrooms.

Fostering well-being in the university L2 classroom: the “I am an author” project

Abstract This study explores the effect of a project-based learning module informed by the principles of the Deep Approach to World Language Education on students’ well-being in an advanced Italian language subject. Data were collected via a questionnaire (n = 21) created in light of Oxford’s EMPATHICS model of well-being. As part of this module, students were tasked with creating and self-publishing an illustrated story in Italian. Results indicate that the project contributed to students’ well-being, mostly because it enabled them to have an experience of authorship while also making a difference by supporting the local Italian community. Students were able to gain control of their learning by engaging in a task that they perceived as enriching and socially meaningful. The project also had a positive influence on students’ self-efficacy and self-concept, on their intrinsic motivation for learning Italian, as well as on their overall sense of belonging and accomplishment.

The role of pragmatic markers in perceptions of L2 fluency in dialogue

This matched-guise study helps identify the features of interaction that contribute to perceptions of fluency in L2 dialogue. We focus on pragmatic markers (PM) that occur frequently in L1 interaction but relatively less so in L2 English learners' speech (Fung & Carter, 2007), namely, interpersonal (e.g., I see, okay) and cognitive PMs (e.g., I mean, well, I think). Despite evidence of their functional value in interaction (McCarthy, 2009), they are often considered markers of disfluency and rarely introduced in L2 classrooms. Speech samples of highly proficient L2 interaction were digitally manipulated to control for interpersonal and cognitive PMs simulating expert speaker-like PM use. L1 and L2 English listeners (N = 231) rated and commented upon interlocutor's fluency. The quantitative results suggest that listeners generally perceived speakers as more fluent when using PMs, although the magnitude of the effect was relatively small and driven by L1 raters. Raters' qualitative comments suggest covert influence of PM use on fluency perceptions and uncovered a bias favoring English L1 speaker PM use. Results support the potential value of explicitly addressing PMs in teaching L2 fluency and help researchers in understanding the construct of spoken fluency in dialogue to guide in its measurement and assessment.

Examining the Confluence of Identity and Politeness in L2 Classroom Talk

Identity and politeness have received substantial interest in the fields of pragmatics and discourse analysis. Despite this, few studies have empirically investigated how they influence each other to shape the subtleties of talk-in-interaction. Such an understanding would be particularly useful to language educators, as it could illuminate the types of interactional practices that learners undertake to legitimize themselves. This paper will explore one such instance in an English as a foreign language classroom at a Japanese university. Conversation Analysis is used to examine a group task in which a student in a subordinated role attempts to project two conflicting identities: a compliant follower and an expert on the discussion topic. The data exhibits how this highly proficient learner seamlessly switches back and forth between the two identities through her acts of politeness rooted in Japanese culture. The findings highlight the complex interpersonal challenges that learners often face in their attempts at self-expression in the language classroom.

Shifting Learning Atmosphere through Process Drama: Teaching English Parts-of-Speech (PoS) in Indian Classroom

This paper investigates the effectiveness of process drama in teaching English parts-of-speech to middle school students in an eastern Indian school. For the application part, researchers developed process drama-based lesson plans following the structural approach and implemented them among the students of class VII studying English as a second language (L2). The study employed a quasi-experimental design, with a pretest-posttest approach to data collection. Additionally, the facilitator consistently took observational field notes to understand the utility and limitations of process drama in a second-language classroom. The study's major findings indicate a significant growth in the treatment group and showed seminal benefits over the traditional method of teaching parts-of-speech through the structural approach. Moreover, observation and field notes indicated the welcoming attitude of learners towards process drama-based language pedagogy. Also, observation and field notes showed assistance in understanding the utility and limitations of process drama as a pedagogical tool in an L2 classroom. Thus, findings of this study have implications for language educators, curriculum designers, and policymakers, offering valuable insights and practical recommendations for integrating process drama in L2 teaching methodologies in diverse educational settings. Additionally, this research contributes to the ongoing discourse on innovative language teaching techniques, catering to the needs of the diverse student populations in language classroom.

Teacher’s Implementation of Error-Correction Strategies in L2 Classroom

This research aims to highlight the cruciality of error-correction phenomenon in l2 classroom setting by subjecting focus in exploring error-correction strategies amalgamated by teachers into their teaching methodology and its effect on L2 learners. It further encircles the following objectives: 1) to normalize errors for students, 2) to assert that linguistic errors require timed correction, 3) to bring awareness about student’s need and preferences in l2 learning, and lastly 4) to examine whether a perceptive gap of students and teachers exists regarding error-correction. A mixed-method research design inclining towards qualitive study approach, making it lean towards quasi-qualitative research design (QUAL+quan), has been selected; additionally, the population consists of entire L2 student body and teaching faculty of Punjab from which forty-four students and two teachers of grade seven from two private schools are sampled via convenience non-probability sampling for in-depth investigation. The tools include observational checklist to identify error-correction strategies, students' questionnaire survey quantified via Likert Scale and structured interview from the teachers to study their perspective. The research finds a strong perceptive gap between students’ needs and teachers’ practices along with a practice gap between teacher’s beliefs and her classroom practices with respect to method, frequency and time of correction due to which students’ linguistic performance and their perception towards errors has been severely impacted. Hence, the research recommends synthesis of diversified correction techniques tactfully by the teachers in their teaching methodologies to cater students' needs along with commencement of teacher-training programs and students’ feedback on classroom practices to enhance their learning.

Implicit and explicit instruction in the second language classroom: A study of learner preferences in higher education

AbstractIn a recent study, English‐speaking L2 learners of German who received explicit instruction made significantly greater improvements in pronunciation and vocabulary than learners who received implicit instruction. Against the backdrop of this work, the present study reports learner preferences and perceptions about implicit and explicit language instruction. Results highlight a general preference for explicit instruction among university students, with implicit instruction reported as a source of stress and learner anxiety. While implicit and explicit instruction both have a place in the L2 classroom, learners reported that explicit instruction helped circumvent crosslinguistic transfer and ease anxiety. Many learners reported the expectation of declarative knowledge as a function of higher education instruction, suggesting that the exclusive goal of communicative competence may be an insufficient target for university language students. This study highlights the importance of explicit instruction in the L2 classroom.

The importance of relevance: Factors influencing upper secondary vocational students’ engagement in L2 English language teaching

ABSTRACT While student engagement is important for meaningful learning experiences in school, vocational students are known to perceive general subjects, such as languages, as irrelevant and unengaging. For this reason, general subjects are often taught in a manner adapted to the students’ vocational education. In Norway, such teaching is known as the vocational orientation approach (VO). This qualitative study investigated how VO relates to student engagement in L2 English lessons. Using data from 13 group interviews with Norwegian vocational students, the study showed how perceived relevance is a main contributing factor. Furthermore, the study also identified social and active work methods, as well as caring teachers, as key contributors towards engagement. The findings support the contention that a VO approach promotes engagement in vocational L2 classrooms, especially when it builds on student perceptions of relevance.

What English language in‐service teachers think, know, and do about writing instruction: Iranian teachers' stated attitudes vs. actual practice

AbstractThis study explored second language (L2) in‐service teachers' (ISTs') attitudes toward writing, probed any discrepancy between their attitudes and practice, and investigated the extent to which writing skill is included in L2 classrooms compared to the other three macro skills, namely listening, speaking, and reading. To conduct this mixed‐methods study, 100 Iranian L2 ISTs who teach English in language institutes filled out a validated questionnaire on teachers' attitudes toward writing. Before filling out the questionnaire, a sample of 10 L2 ISTs was randomly selected to participate in nonparticipant observation sessions throughout a semester. They were finally invited for semi‐structured interviews. The result indicated that teachers had positive attitudes toward teaching writing. However, there was a mismatch between their stated attitudes and their actual practice—less than 3% of their class time was allotted to actual writing compared to the other three macro skills (speaking = 45%; listening = 17%; reading = 13%; writing and grammar = 14%; other activities = 11%). Furthermore, teachers reported on some factors such as insufficient payment for additional writing tasks including feedback, and lack of allotted time for writing. Implications of these findings for teachers and stakeholders are discussed further.

Effects of Dynamic Assessment of Grammatical Structures on Learners’ Speaking Accuracy: The Case of Hawassa University, Ethiopia

One of the central problems second language (L2) students face during speaking is the frequent use of ungrammatical structures. Scholars suggest Dynamic assessment (DA), which integrates language instruction and assessment in L2 classrooms, is very helpful in enhancing learners’ speaking accuracy. However, the DA as an L2 instruction/assessment approach and the Weighted Clause Ratio [WCR] as a method of analyzing speaking accuracy has never been addressed in Ethiopia before. Therefore, this research examined the extent of the effects of DA on English language structures during dialogues on learners’ speaking accuracy during monologues. To do so, an experimental study was conducted on 48 second-year English language students of Hawassa University, Ethiopia. The participants took static pretests prepared based on the IELTS Speaking Exam Syllabus. Subsequently, each student’s monologue was transcribed and the grammar accuracy was scored using a Weighted Clause Ratio (WCR). Then, the students (n=48) were assigned to the experimental and control groups based on systematic random sampling, and the equivalence of these two groups was checked. Finally, the treatment group received DA of speaking skills, whereas the control group got a Non-dynamic assessment (NDA) of speaking skills for 12 weeks. The result showed that DA had a statistically significant effect on students’ oral accuracy. The finding implies that applying DA in ELT classrooms helps to sp facilitate learners’ L2 acquisition.

The correlates of flow in the L2 classroom: Linking basic L2 task features to learner flow experiences

AbstractFlow is an intrinsic motivational state associated with full task engagement, positive affect, and enhanced performance. While research has examined how different language tasks interact with flow experiences, no study has examined learner flow experiences in a wide range of tasks using an experience sampling method to determine how universal basic task features (e.g., modality, participant structure, information distribution, and targeted skills) interact with flow. The present study aims to respond to this gap in the research. Participants were 13 teachers and 327 students from 18 intact French L2 classes in a Canadian postsecondary school. Teachers selected and implemented an average of six tasks from their personal repertoires at random moments throughout the semester. Immediately following each task, learners anonymously completed a flow experience questionnaire (N = 1408; α = 0.91), and teachers a task description questionnaire containing 17 basic task features (N = 81). Statistical analyses show that 10 of the 17 variables significantly interacted with learners’ flow experiences. The results not only validate a frequently used flow measurement and establish norms for future research but also outline a framework language teachers can use to evaluate and modify practices to improve learners’ subjective classroom experience.

Examining interlanguage pragmatics from a relevance-theoretic perspective: Challenges in L2 production

AbstractThis paper explores three pragmatic challenges that learners of Japanese as L2 encountered during their study abroad programs and work placements in Japan. These challenges are examined within the framework of Relevance Theory. Research on interlanguage pragmatics of L2 Japanese is limited in scope, as studies mostly focus on speech acts and other sociolinguistic and interactional strategies. As a result, researchers have yet to formally establish how learners of Japanese have difficulties in regard to their production of meaning. This study draws on open-ended questionnaires, semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions to determine the pragmatic competence of L2 students across two Irish universities. The study demonstrates that learners have difficulties with processing both linguistic encoding and phenomena that involve inference. That is, learners’ inability to activate their pragmatic competence hinders their ability to produce communicative acts. Findings lend support to the need to enhance pragmatic competence among L2 learners through specific cognitive processes. This paper also contributes to the need for interlanguage pragmatics to be pursued in conjunction with current developments in Relevance Theory. It is argued that ideas developed within Relevance Theory can be particularly beneficial to the teaching and learning of pragmatic competence in the L2 classroom.

Tools for Scaffolding the Development of L2 Speaking in English-medium Higher Education: Lessons from Poland and Australia

Participating in oral L2 communication may be challenging for English-medium higher education students. While literature suggests that scaffolding facilitates the development of L2 speaking, research has not addressed the notion of tools for scaffolding its development. The aim of this study is twofold: (1) to investigate how scaffolding can be embodied in tool design to support L2 speaking and (2) to obtain and analyse student perceptions of the tools. We draw on questionnaire data gathered in two iterations of a larger design-based research study conducted in two contexts: English Studies students in Poland (N = 26) and culturally and linguistically diverse L2 learners in Australia (N = 12). This study illustrates how features of scaffolding were applied to map instructor, peer- and technology-based tools in terms of learning activities, resources, technology and feedback. The results suggest that these tools may cater to the multiple levels of student understanding and skill with regard to the development of L2 speaking found in modern L2 classrooms.

Explicit pronunciation instruction in the second language classroom

Abstract The present study uses an acoustic analysis to examine the effects of implicit and explicit pronunciation instruction on the acquisition of German final devoicing in the L2 classroom. Twenty-nine English-speaking L2 learners of German at a North American university were assigned to an implicit or explicit condition. Learner speech samples were recorded, following a pre/post/delayed-post-test design. Four acoustic correlates of final and medial obstruent voicing were analyzed to establish the degree to which underlyingly voiced word-final stops were phonetically devoiced. Results indicate that learners in the explicit condition significantly outperformed learners in the implicit condition, with all four acoustic measures signaling significantly greater word-final devoicing by the post-test in the explicit condition. Orthography, declarative knowledge, and level of awareness are hypothesized as factors that influenced the acquisition process. The study calls for additional acoustic work on the effects of different instructional practices on German L2 pronunciation.

An Article Review: Revisiting the Moderating Effect of Speaker Proficiency on the Relationships among Intelligibility, Comprehensibility, and Accentedness in L2 Spanish

The current article review summarizes the main points and comments on Huensch and Nagle (2022)’s article published in Studies in Second Language Acquisition. Huensch and Nagle (2022)’s study is a replication of their research in 2021, exploring the moderating effect of speaker proficiency on the relationships among intelligibility, comprehensibility, and accentedness in L2 Spanish. Although lack of innovation, the study enjoys linguistic, logical and methodological strengths, as well as theoretical and practical significance. It also provides implications for L2 pronunciation research and classroom teaching.

Stereotypes and prejudices in the Italian L2 class. A conversation analysis of their emergence in teachers' talk

The paper explores teachers' interactional uses of stereotypes and prejudices in the Italian L2 classroom. Drawing from video-ethnographic research in a voluntary association, this study adopts a discursive approach to stereotypes and prejudices, analyzing their pragmatic uses during classroom activities. Even though previous literature has mostly argued against these social devices, the analysis illustrates that teachers make use of stereotypes and prejudices to pursue their local aims in the classroom. Specifically, teachers mobilize stereotyped talk to achieve specific social and didactic aims (e.g., to explain a lexical items or to prompt laughter). In the discussion, we critically consider the risks and opportunities of this kind of practice and advance few implications for teachers' professional practice, arguing for the relevance of video-based teacher training.

Learning Factors Causing Silence in English Language (L2) Classrooms at the Graduate Level

The English language has been enjoying the status of an official, language of formal documentation and medium of teaching and learning in academic settings. The main object of the study was to find the factors to cause students' silence in English language (L2) classrooms at one of the Government Universities (CS 2nd year). Applying the qualitative real ethnographic research design; with effective classroom observations (using the observation sheet adopted from Jim King) and semi-structured interviews. The study analyzed that there are some notable learning factors, (such as anxiety, fear, lack of confidence, lack of L2 knowledge and L1 interference) that impact the student's participation in the L2 classroom resulting in silence. Such issues directly affect students' speaking proficiency, and confidence to talk and participate in activities in L2 classroom. The study will be helpful for teachers, curriculum designers and policymakers to overcome the factors causing silence.

Modeling the Association between EFL Instructors’ Foreign Language Teaching Enjoyment and Humor Styles

Background: Positive psychology in the field of applied linguistics has recently shifted its focus from L2 learners to L2 teachers as teachers have been revealed to be a pivotal external affordance for the emergence of learners’ positive emotions such as enjoyment. Exploring the link between teacher-related constructs can provide deep insights into L2 teachers’ emotional agency within L2 classroom context.
 Purpose: The current study seeks to examine the association between English as a foreign language (EFL) instructors’ enjoyment of foreign language teaching (i.e., personal enjoyment, student appreciation, and social enjoyment) and humor styles (i.e., self-enhancing, affiliative, aggressive, and self-defeating humor styles).
 Materials and Methods: In order to examine this association, 244 (151 males and 93 females) Turkish EFL instructors voluntarily completed self-report scales measuring their foreign language teaching enjoyment and humor styles.
 Results: Results of the structural equation modeling (SEM) indicated that higher levels of student appreciation and social enjoyment are correlated with higher levels of affiliative and self-enhancing humor. In addition, greater degrees of personal enjoyment, student appreciation, and social enjoyment are correlated with lower levels of aggressive humor, while self-defeating humor was unrelated to any of the enjoyment indices. There was also no significant gender difference for any humor styles.
 Conclusion: The findings are discussed in view of implications for teacher well-being.

Hvordan fremmedspråk fremmer bærekraft i økonomiutdanningen

Recent research has identified several key competencies for sustainability in the economics education. Other researchers have found a connection between multilingualism and diversity within the field of economics. We saw the need to develop a course which introduces sustainability competencies in economics through foreign language (L2) instruction. Our hypothesis is that the L2 classroom is well suited to incorporate sustainability perspectives as an organic part of other considerations, and that linguistic diversity is a precondition for other kinds of diversity. We designed learning activities and course evaluations aimed at safeguarding the key competencies for sustainability, economics and L2. Through a quantitative review of a dataset consisting of the report from a case-assignment, a written assignment, and course evaluations, we ascertained how different learning activities have contributed to acquiring the key competencies for sustainability in economics. We found that the competencies for foreign language and sustainability benefit from coinciding pedagogical approaches, which were tried out via Content and Language Integrated Learning, including cooperative and problem-based learning. We found that competencies like ethical awareness, critical thinking, strategic and future oriented thinking, cultural knowledge, intercultural and general communication, and knowledge of country-specific sustainability challenges are enhanced through the teaching of a foreign language.
 Keywords: Fremmedspråk, bærekraft, CLIL, økonomiutdanning

COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE RESPONSES OF L1 (AFAN OROMO) IN THE EFL CLASSROOM

One of the most common issues that EFL teachers face in the classroom is the decision of whether or not to use L1 in the L2 classroom. The purpose of this study was to explore the cognitive and affective responses of L1 (Afan Oromo) use in primary school of EFL classrooms. The study employed a qualitative research method with a descriptive case study. Classroom observations and interviews were used to collect data. The Nvivo 12 computer program qualitative data analysis software was used to analyze the collected data. The finding indicated that the most prevalent cognitive reactions were comparing English and Afan Oromo grammatical rules, acquiring new vocabulary, and forming links between Afan Oromo and English. Teachers preferred Afan Oromo for teaching new vocabulary, grammatical lessons, and abstract concepts. Students preferred L1 use for better understanding, mastery of grammar and complicated issues, and a more natural way of expressing themselves because Afan Oromo enables them a more confident sense while expressing their views and keeping the affective filter low. Although using L1 contributes to a better understanding, unguided usage and unsystematized practice of L1 may impede the achievement of desired goals in English teaching and learning.