L2 Classroom Research Articles

A multimodal perspective on adult learners’ vocabulary explanations in the beginner-level L2 classroom

ABSTRACT Following the current research in conversation analysis in the field of second language (L2) learning, the present study demonstrates that beginner-level adult learners actively contribute to vocabulary explanation sequences by mobilising multimodal resources including depictive gestures, gaze, and short verbal turns. The data consist of video-recordings of whole-class interactions in a beginner-level L2 French classroom for adults with migrant backgrounds. The analysis shows how the depictive gestures deployed by learners serve either to represent concrete words, directly depicting the target item, or, combined with a short verbal explanation, to make more abstract concepts visible by contextualising the target word and associating it with a larger context of use. The findings contribute to a deeper understanding of the functioning of vocabulary explanations in the L2 classroom and, in particular, of the specific participatory dynamics in language classes for beginner-level adult learners.

EFL adolescent learners’ perceptions of digital multimodal composing tasks and task outcomes: A longitudinal study

AbstractAlthough the value of digital multimodal composing (DMC) in language learning is being increasingly recognized, longitudinal studies focusing on second language (L2) students’ DMC practices are scarce. To fill the gap, this multi‐case study aimed to explore English as a foreign language adolescent learners’ evolving perceptions of the role of DMC tasks in English learning and the relationship between the quality of DMC task outcomes and learners’ perceptions over 7 months. Eight DMC tasks were implemented in an English composition class, and perceptions and task outcomes of three focal participants were tracked over time. Data were collected from multiple sources, such as a learner background questionnaire, a digital literacy questionnaire, semi‐structured interviews, reflection surveys, and the scores of students’ DMC tasks. Findings indicate that although all three participants acknowledged a beneficial role of DMC practices, each participant's perception exhibited different patterns over time: two kept the similar perceptions (negative and positive for each) and one showed a change in her perceptions (negative to positive). Results suggest that this difference could be attributed to various factors, including perceived level of digital literacy, the ongoing learning experience with DMC tasks, and understanding of multimodality. Regarding the relationship between the quality of DMC outcomes and students’ perceptions, although all three learners tended to perform better on their tasks over time, participants’ attitudes seemed to mediate the quality of DMC products. Pedagogical implications of the study are discussed in light of important considerations when implementing DMC tasks in L2 classrooms.

Teacher students’ legitimation of teaching activities in the L1 classroom

This study investigates Norwegian L1 teacher students’ legitimation language as they retrospectively reflect on internship experiences during their first two years of teacher education. We aim to describe the teacher students’ legitimation of teaching activities within the framework of the specialization dimension of Legitimation Code Theory. Drawing particularly on Bernstein’s ideas on different knowledge structures and on teaching and acquisition of humanistic subjects, we critically discuss why the interviewees’ legitimation language only to a small degree works to classify L1 as a distinct school subject. By investigating the legitimation language used by teacher students in their second year of teacher education, our study aims to highlight the educational pathway to the L1 teacher profession. Using policy ideals as a backdrop for discussing the implications of our findings, we describe possible measures to assist teacher students’ development toward professional subject didactic reasoning and legitimation.

Ronald P. Leow's essential bookshelf: The L2 learning process in instructed second language acquisition (ISLA)

Ronald P. Leow is Professor (Applied Linguistics) in the Department of Spanish and Portuguese and Language Program Director of Spanish Language Instruction at Georgetown University. He has initiated and published (over 100 articles and chapters) in several strands of research that include language curriculum development, research methodology, cognitive processes and depth of processing in language learning, (written and computerized) corrective feedback, textual enhancement, reactivity, and CALL. He has contributed to the field his 2015 Model of the L2 Learning Process in ISLA (in Explicit learning in the L2 classroom: A student-centered approach, Routledge) and his 2020 Feedback Processing Framework (in R. M. Manchón (Ed.), Writing and language learning. Advancing research agendas, John Benjamins) to provide a cognitive account for how L2 data and feedback are processed by L2 learners. His i10-index is 58 with over 6,500 citations.

Vietnamese university EFL teachers’ practices and literacy in classroom assessment: A sociocultural perspective

Taking a sociocultural perspective, this study investigated Vietnamese university English EFL teachers' classroom assessment practices and the extent to which teachers' language assessment literacy (LAL) was reflected in their practices. Adopting a mixed-methods explanatory sequential research design, data were collected using a self-reported questionnaire and follow-up interviews. Data were analyzed quantitatively using SPSS version 22.0 and qualitatively through thematic analysis. Findings revealed that traditional assessment tasks were ranked as being more prevalent than alternative assessment, and there was no association between the usage of different types of assessment tasks and teachers' teaching experience. The results also suggested that all alternative assessment tasks were perceived as challenging due to certain material, institutional, and Confucianism ideological constraints; however, there were discrepancies between teachers' preferred types of effective alternative assessment. We argue that EFL teachers’ assessment practices and their LAL repertoire interact with many factors in a particular sociocultural context. Implications for L2 classroom assessment practices and teacher professional development are discussed.

Perfectionism and writing anxiety as predictors of Iranian EFL learners’ performance in IELTS writing module: a multi-dimensional perspective

This study aimed to investigate the relationship between Iranian EFL Learners’ perfectionism and writing anxiety and their performance in the IELTS Writing Module. To this end, sixty-eight Iranian EFL learners were selected via convenience sampling. Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale developed and validated by Hewitt and Flett (1991) and Second Language Writing Anxiety Inventory devised by Cheng (2004) were administered to the participants. The participants were then asked to write on an assigned topic from IELTS Writing Task 2. The findings of the study indicated that of the three dimensions of perfectionism (i.e., self-oriented, other-oriented and socially prescribed), none were associated with the learners’ writing performance, while a significant negative relationship was found between the learners’ writing anxiety consisting of somatic anxiety, cognitive anxiety, and avoidance behavior and their writing performance. The results of multiple regression analysis suggested that somatic anxiety, and avoidance behavior were significant predictors of writing performance. The implications highlight the strategies that should be deployed by educational policy-makers, practitioners, and examiners to alleviate anxiety in L2 classrooms, promoting a safe and stress-free educational environment.

A Literature Review on Using the First Language (L1) in the EFL Classroom

Among foreign students themselves, the usage of L1 (first language) in the EFL classroom has long drawn attention. It was seen as a challenge to teach the TL without utilizing L1, as it was frequently used in the learning technique to teach other languages. This paper analyzed and emphasized the usage of L1 in classroom instruction in EFL. The literature study was conducted using a review and analysis of around 7 relevant journal publications. The outcome demonstrated how using L1 in the EFL classroom helped to foster a good learning environment. It indicates that students' views regarding the usage of L1 in the EFL classroom were good, as seen by their willingness such as in receiving instructions, understanding difficult topics, learning new vocabularies, and socializing in the classroom. The study result recommends looking into the effect of the use of L1 in the EFL classroom.

Reading Patterns, Scanning and the ‘Control F’/Search Icon: How Students Really (Don’t) Read

Purpose: The purpose of this research was to investigate whether digital reading had an impact on reading skills, as well as students’ tendencies to read online or offline in the L2 English speaking classroom. Approach/Methodology/Design: This quantitative-qualitative mixed methods case study involved was comprised of a convenient, purposive sample of 16 participants for semi structured focus group interviews in an English-speaking private university. Findings: The findings seem to suggest that reading digitally prods students not only to adopt skimming patterns, but to use the “Control F” command to bypass reading altogether. Furthermore, students’ reading preferences for online/offline material was also revealed, showing a significant tendency of students to revert to online material “just to understand” or “get an idea” while deep understanding was substantially associated with preference for offline reading. Practical Implications: The findings of this study may serve to guide teachers of English in the L2 classroom how to navigate online texts comprehensively, what skills to promote while reading online and which to forgo. Originality/value: This study sheds light on the possible misuse of “Control F” during online reading exercises and underscores the necessity of using this tool over and above reading strategies and skills, and not as a stand-alone tool in itself,

Reducing EFL Learners’ Speaking Anxiety through Selective Error Correction and Group Work

This quantitative study aimed to examine the level of speaking anxiety experienced by second-year high-school Acehnese EFL learners in their oral performance in L2 classroom and to investigate the attempt to lower their anxiety through the implementation of selective error correction and group work. The Foreign Language Speaking Anxiety Scale (Horwitz et al., 1986) was used as a means to survey and evaluate the learners’ speaking anxiety, and their oral performance was assessed through speaking performance rubric as adopted from Ismailia (2021) before and after the learners’ exposure to selective error correction and group work. The findings showed that a high level of speaking anxiety was found in the majority of the learners, and that the use of selective error correction and group work for the treatment of speaking anxiety overall resulted in the learners’ improved performance in their oral task. The findings highlighted the needs to create a positive and supportive educational environment that stimulates learners to freely experiment with L2 and to establish close-knit learning communities that promote authentic interactions in L2 and provide opportunities to be more engaged in oral language use.

‘Drawing out the Whole Picture’: Positive and Gestalt Effects of Taking Sign-Based Notes on Listening Performance in Chinese ESL Classrooms

The effort to design a most ideal strategy for L2 learners to take notes in L2 (EFL/EMI/EAP) classrooms has received growing attention. However, note-taking has been repeatedly tested and reported diverging impacts on students' learning. This study investigates the effects of sign-based note-taking (SBN) with the traditional way of using pens and paper, and it features the cognitive processes of understanding and creating notes. SBN guides students to comprehend and draw a gestalt of notes using signs (i.e., icons, indices, and symbols). In a 16-week mixed study, three types of interventions-a traditional treatment, TOEFL's 'good-note guidance' (GNG), and SBN-were administered to three separate student groups, namely a control group (CG) and two experiment groups (EG1 and EG2). Pre-, post-, delayed tests, questionnaires, and post-intervention interviews were conducted and analyzed for the needs and the effects of interventions on listening performances. Findings are as follows: only EG2 achieved significantly higher performance regardless of instructor's influence, proving gestalt-based SBN an effective cognitive practice; GNG improved performance over time; students favored SBN, wanting longer-duration guidance. These results confirm that gestalt strengthens memory for L2 listening and yields pedagogical implications for L2 Listening classrooms.

Looks like google to me: Instructor ability to detect machine translation in L2 Spanish writing

AbstractThis article reports the results of an empirical study designed to determine the degree to which college instructors of Spanish can distinguish between machine translation (MT) and non‐MT writing samples produced by second language (L2) learners of Spanish in an intermediate‐level writing course. We also investigated relationships between detection accuracy rates, instructor teaching experience, and text type (narrative or argumentative), as well as signs instructors consider indicators of both kinds of writing. Results demonstrated that instructors were able to distinguish MT from non‐MT writing with a high degree of accuracy by relying on a broad array of indicators. However, neither text type difference nor instructor experience related significantly to detection ability. These findings have practical implications for the L2 classroom with regard to instructor response to MT use and the integration of MT tools to support L2 writing development.

The effect of implementing a critical thinking intervention program on English language learners’ critical thinking, reading comprehension, and classroom climate

Entering the age of globalization and multi-cultures, the education system has become more accountable to provide a positive and productive learning atmosphere in which both life skills and academic skills are taught and trained. Following this welcoming trend, the present study sought to integrate a proposed critical thinking-based intervention program (3Es) on the ground of Bloom’s original and revised Taxonomy (1956, 2001) into a BA English reading course. This study examined the treatment’s effect on learners’ critical thinking, attitudes toward L2 classroom climate, and reading comprehension in an English as a foreign language context of Iran. According to the placement test results, excluding the upper-intermediate ones left a sample of 40 (29 females and 11 males) intermediate participants being assigned to two groups: control and experimental. While the former received conventional instruction, the latter was exposed to the critical thinking program presented in three stages: exposure, exploration, and evaluation. The data were derived from Honey's critical thinking questionnaire (2004), the L2-contextualized adapted version of WIHIC (What Is Happening In The Class) designed by Fraser et al. (1986), and the British Council reading comprehension tests. After analyzing the data, the results demonstrated positive changes in the experimental group participants’ critical thinking, reading comprehension, and learners’ attitudes toward classroom climate after implementing the critical thinking intervention program. Our findings contribute to firstly EFL practitioners and curriculum designers, as the main authorities in revising and developing curricula and educational facilities to include the skill of critical thinking as one of the major contributors to the positive atmosphere of the class, and next to the teachers to become cognizant of the influential role of critical thinking in students’ attitudes toward the classroom and their academic development.

Positional identities negotiated within a collective identity

Abstract This qualitative study explores Japanese students’ positional identities in EMI contexts. Their positioning act is operated by the sociocultural norms of a program shared among community members. Individual semi-structured interviews were conducted with a total of 13 first-year students enrolled in an undergraduate English-taught program (ETP) at a Japanese national university. A thematic analysis of the interview data produced four main themes: (a) acting self-identification as a peripheral position, (b) hierarchy in a Japanese cohort, (c) an identity gap between the ideal self and reality, and (d) the ETP-A collective identity for membership negotiation. The study shows how participants position themselves and others based on English proficiency and academic culture, whereby students force themselves to acculturate for legitimate full participation. Such traits reflect collective identities and function as forms of sociocultural norms that determine legitimate membership. Furthermore, such norms lead to stratification between students: Japanese students identify themselves as inactive members of the ETP group with limited second-language (L2) English. Conversely, the collective identity helps them reclaim their ETP membership in Japanese-medium instruction classes with Japanese students from outside of the ETP. Japanese students’ positional identities are discussed in terms of L2 English competence and classroom culture.

Tracking learner engagement in the L2 classroom with experience sampling

Learner engagement is a major predictor of success in L2 acquisition (Hiver et al., 2021). It is therefore important to be able to measure and track engagement levels over time. This may provide theoretical insight into the conditions (both internal and external to the learner) in which engagement is more likely to occur, as well as offer implications for pedagogical practices to create such conditions. However, current research on L2 engagement suffers from a number of shortcomings: 1) Much of it is carried out in highly controlled research settings and lacks ecological validity, 2) Scaling, for example by increasing the number of research contexts or participants, is often impossible, 3) Current methods are often highly intrusive, for example requiring learners to interrupt learning activities in order to respond to questions, 4) Many studies are of short duration and thus unable to capture variation over time, and, 5) Many studies only investigate small student populations in a single environment. To overcome these shortcomings, we designed a mobile application for use by teachers in class to record L2 engagement levels through experience sampling, a method used to collect data on learner experiences in-the-moment. In this article we describe the application, the process by which we validated the instrument, and demonstrate its usefulness as a research and pedagogical instrument based on a 1-year pilot study.

Using Collaborative Testing to Better Evaluate L2 Classroom Learning

Although collaborative learning activities are now common in contemporary second-language classrooms, they are often accompanied by traditional assessment methods, such as eliciting knowledge and skills from students individually. These assessment methods, however, are inadequate as they provide an incomplete picture of learner abilities and ignore some of the essential communication skills that teachers actually focus on in their teaching. This article looks at the L2 classroom use of collaborative testing. It argues for greater use of this alternative testing method and suggests ways in which it could be introduced to complement current approaches to classroom assessment. 現在の第二言語学習の授業では、協働学習が一般的になっているが、その際には、個々の学生の知識や技能を問うような、従来の評価方法が用いられることが多い。しかし、この評価方法では、学習者の能力を完全には把握できず、教師が実際に教える際に重視する本質的なコミュニケーション能力を測れないため、評価方法としては不十分なものである。本論では、L2クラスでの協働テスト実施について考察している。また、この評価方法を、これまでの方法に替わるものとしてさらに活用するべきであり、現在の授業評価をさらに補完するために導入するべきだと提案している。

Teachers’ perceptions of machine translation as a pedagogical tool

The role of Machine Translation (MT) within the L2 classroom has proven controversial. While many students value MT to support various learning objectives, teachers fear its potential to promote passive learning, and undermine academic integrity. Nonetheless, improved reliability and accessibility of MT, combined with student attitudes, makes it increasingly hard to “Google-proof” the classroom. Alternatively, MT might be incorporated into the classroom, while highlighting to students its limitations. A key factor in this dynamic is the attitude of classroom teachers. The current study details the development of a pilot translation app, Transpose, which then acted as discussion prompt to explore teachers’ attitudes towards MT in focus groups. Participants were four UK language teachers working with various age groups and in various contexts. The Transpose app exploited possible advantages of MT by visually comparing the syntactic structure of source and target languages. A thematic analysis found that, overall, teachers viewed translation as an important pedagogical tool. Regarding MT, views were mixed. They enthusiastically suggested novel uses, such as supporting children with English as an Additional Language, yet also felt that such technology was best employed to support independent study in advanced learners. Technological and institutional factors still prevent the seamless integration of IT-related methods within classroom contexts. Overall, while teachers expressed positive attitudes towards translation, and a cautious acceptance of the place the Transpose app could take within the classroom, there remain attitudinal barriers to widespread adoption.

Exploring The Need for a Bilingual Approach in English Learning in an Indonesian EFL Tertiary Setting

This study scrutinizes learners’ perception of the bilingual (Indonesian-English) approach in an English language classroom at an Indonesian EFL tertiary setting. In particular, this study examines learners’ attitudes and beliefs about first language (L1) use in the second language (L2) classroom and the functions or purposes of L1 use in the English classroom. This study employed a survey design. One hundred and ten university learners enrolled in English major (n=110) participated in this study. The data were collected through a questionnaire adopted from Hall and Cook (2013) and analyzed statistically. The result of this study revealed that the bilingual approach (L1-L2 use) was more favorable as perceived by Indonesian EFL learners, and the use of L1 in the L2 classroom in various degrees of context or purposes was preferred. This study also showed the need for a gradual shift from L1 to L2 use along with learners’ English proficiency progress. The theoretical and practical implications of this study are discussed.
 Keywords: L1 use, L2 use, bilingual, monolingual

The role of live transcripts in synchronous online L2 classrooms: Learning outcomes and learner perceptions

This study explored the role of live transcripts in online synchronous academic English classrooms by focusing on how automatically generated live transcripts influence the learning outcomes of lower-proficiency and higher-proficiency learners and on their perceptions towards live transcripts. The study adop ted a 2 × 2 factorial design, with the two factors being learner proficiency (high vs. low) and availability of live transcription (presence and absence). The participants were 129 second-year Japanese university students from four synchronous classes taught on Zoom by the same teacher under an academic English reading course. Learning outcomes in this study were evaluated according to the course syllabus through grades and participation in class activities. A questionnaire consisting of nine Likert-scale questions and a comment box was administered to explore participants’ perceived usefulness of, perceived ease of use of, and perceived reliance on live transcripts. Results showed that contrary to previous studies reporting the effectiveness of captioned audiovisual materials in L2 learning, live transcripts as a special type of captions were not effective in promoting the grades of learners of either proficiency. However, it significantly improved the activity participation of lower-proficiency learners, but not that of higher-proficiency learners. Questionnaire results showed that there were no significant differences between learners of two proficiencies in their perceptions towards live transcription, which contradicts previous findings that lower-proficiency learners tend to rely more on captions. Besides enhancement of lecture comprehension, participants reported innovative uses of live transcripts such as screenshots with transcripts for notetaking purposes and transcripts downloaded for later review.

The development and validation of an L2 student digital multimodal composing competence scale

In this digital age, digital multimodal composing (DMC) has permeated the L2 classroom as a technology-enhanced L2 writing task. Despite the learning potential of DMC for L2 students, instruments that measure L2 students’ DMC competence are rare. As such, the present study sought to develop and validate an L2 student DMC competence scale in the mainland Chinese context. Data were collected from 513 Chinese L2 students’ self-reported data on the DMC competence scale. The construct validity of the scale was scrutinized by conducting exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). EFA results supported a five-factor 20-item model of the scale, which comprises digital skills, creativity, genre awareness, language use, and cohesion of modes. CFA analysis and expert judgment yielded a four-factor 15-item model, entailing digital skills, genre awareness, language use, and cohesion of modes. This study clarifies the construct of L2 student DMC competence and provides researchers with a robust instrument for measuring this construct, and teachers with a tool for evaluating the effect of DMC intervention and guiding the formative assessment of DMC projects. Students could also use the scale as a self-assessment tool to raise their metacognitive awareness of DMC competence, which helps them autonomously develop this competence.

The use of L1 in L2 Learning in the Indonesian EFL Context

The issue of L1 usage in L2 classes is still open. Historically, using simply the target language was the most effective method for learning L2. However, some research indicates that incorporating L1 into L2 sessions can also help to improve language learning. The goal of this study is to ascertain the attitudes and beliefs of teachers and students towards the use of a second language in the classroom and to determine the extent to which students' beliefs regarding the use of a second language are related to one another. linguistic versatility Utilizing L1 effectively is also assessed. Participants in this study were 115 students and 30 English teachers (n = 30). A questionnaire was used to obtain the data. According to the study's findings, teachers and students are generally in favor of using L1 in L2 classrooms, depending on the context or goal. This study partially supports the viability of a bilingual or co-taught method in L2 classes.