L2 Learners Research Articles

Exploring Second Language Motivational Self System of Thai Junior High School Students

Research has demonstrated the influence of motivation on second language (L2) acquisition processes. This study aimed to explore the L2 motivational self-system (L2MSS), i.e., the ideal L2 self, ought-to L2 self, and L2 learning experience of Thai junior high school students and investigate whether there are differences of the three components of the L2MSS between genders. 355 students participated in the study. The L2MSS questionnaire adopted from Swatevacharkul (2021) was employed for data collection. Results revealed that, on average, the ideal L2 self, the ought-to L2 self, and L2 learning experience were moderate. It was also found that the Ideal L2 self and ought to L2 self had no significant difference between male and female students, while the L2 learning experience was significantly different. This means that males have more positive L2 learning experience than females, indicating significant gender-based variations in the L2MSS.

U.S. students learning Czech in study abroad: motivational dynamics

Abstract While study-abroad students generally prefer destinations where the local language relates to their personal, academic, or professional pursuits, the Czech Republic ranks as the 25th most popular destination for U.S. study abroad, signalling an interest in exploring beyond traditional language choices. This study addresses the gap in the literature on learning a less commonly taught language in the study abroad setting, which is unrelated to the student’s major fields of study (Czech). Over thirteen weeks, data were gathered through a qualitative methodology involving initial questionnaires, learner diaries, and semi-structured interviews with a sample of five students. Drawing on the L2 Motivational Self System (L2MSS), the research underscores the impact of the L2 learning experience and the construct of the ideal L2 self on motivation. Findings revealed a general increase in motivation for learning Czech throughout the semester, accompanied by a decline in the ideal Czech self by the end and an indicative enhancement in the ideal multilingual self-concept. This study additionally emphasizes the vital role of mandatory language courses in augmenting motivation, particularly when aligned with learners’ objectives. These insights broaden the understanding of motivational dynamics in acquiring languages other than English (LOTEs), highlighting the necessity for continued exploration of the multilingual motivational self-system within study-abroad contexts.

Focus on form, forms, or meaning in grammar instruction: a study of Pakistani university EFL teachers’ cognition and practices

Abstract Teacher cognition shapes teachers’ pedagogical decision-making and influences their teaching practices, including grammar instruction, even when their cognition and practices might be inconsistent. This study explores English language teachers’ cognition regarding grammar instruction and analyses (in)consistencies in teacher cognition and classroom practices. The study employed a structured questionnaire administered to over 210 teachers teaching English language to undergraduate classes at various universities in Pakistan. The results of the questionnaire were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistical analyses. The findings reveal that, despite using focus on forms (FonFs) instruction, teachers support focus on meaning (FonM) instruction, but consider focus on form (FonF) as the most suitable choice for language teaching. Moreover, the content and materials used by teachers reveal their actual classroom practices which tend to favour FonFs instruction, conflicting with their beliefs. This misalignment also indicates teachers’ insufficient knowledge of L2 learning theories and the intricate nature of their grammar cognition. The study implies the need for research on mediating factors in teacher cognition-practice and training programs promoting L2 theory and practical strategies.

Engaging in dialogic peer feedback in L2 writing development: A microgenetic approach

Recent research on the multifaceted nature of student engagement indicating that students engaged with peer feedback dynamically, varying with the interaction of individuals and the environment, while neglecting the impact of engagement with peer feedback on L2 learners’ writing development. Grounded in sociocultural theory, this longitudinal case study aimed to investigate the roles of dialogic peer feedback as a mediating tool for promoting L2 writing development. Four first-year English major students participated in eight tutorials over 16 weeks in a university in China. Data were collected from peer feedback dialogue, pre- and post-mediation drafts, retrospective verbal reports, self-reflection, and focus groups through microgenesis. The findings revealed that dialogic peer feedback enhanced student engagement from various dimensions. Engaging in dialogic peer feedback facilitated the diagnosis of writing problems and appropriate mediation through interaction. Mediation rather than correction in dialogic peer feedback was critical in assisting learners in achieving L2 writing goals.

Implementation of and challenges in differentiated L2 language instruction: A systematic literature review (2014-2023)

In the realm of second language (L2) education, differentiated instruction (DI) has garnered significant attention as an adaptive approach to meeting diverse learner needs. This study systematically reviews the 2014-2023 research on the implementation and related challenges of DI in L2 instruction. Through a comprehensive analysis of empirical studies, the review highlights key DI strategies, and the obstacles faced in practical application. Findings suggest that while DI can foster more inclusive and effective L2 learning environments; however, challenges persist, such as resource constraints, teacher preparedness, and varying student motivation levels. This review synthesizes current knowledge to provide educators, policymakers, and researchers with valuable insights, ultimately aiming to enhance the efficacy of DI in L2 education.

A Study of Chinese University Students’ English Learning Motivation, Anxiety, Use of English and English Achievement

Research has found that contact with a second language (L2), L2 motivation and foreign language anxiety are important variables affecting L2 learning. Nevertheless, not much research has explored the relationships among these variables and their interactive effects on L2 learning outcomes. The present large-scale survey study examined the relationships between English learning motivation, English classroom anxiety and use of English, as well as their predictive effects on Chinese university students’ English achievement. A total of 439 randomly sampled students from two Chinese universities in Beijing answered the background information questionnaire, the 8-item English Classroom Anxiety Scale and the 35-item English Learning Motivation Questionnaire. The major findings were as follows: (a) English learning motivation, English classroom anxiety and use of English were significantly correlated with one another, and (b) English classroom anxiety, use of English and English learning motivation generally significantly predicted the students’ English achievements. These findings confirm the importance of L2 motivation, foreign language anxiety and contact with the L2 for second language learners. Hence, specific suggestions (e.g., reading and listening to more of a second language, creating a supportive and relaxed L2 classroom environment, etc.) are discussed regarding how to enhance L2 learning motivation, reduce foreign language anxiety and increase contact with the L2 in second language learning, so as to ensure sustainable development in second language learning.

Examining modal and amodal language processing in proficient bilinguals: evidence from the modality-switch paradigm.

Recent discussions have emphasized the significance of embodied processing in language comprehension. Nevertheless, continuous debates persist regarding the relative contribution of modal (embodied) and amodal (abstract) processing of language. The current study investigated the contribution of modal processing in the first (L1) and second (L2) language, hypothesizing higher level of abstract amodal symbol processing in L2 than L1, since the correspondence of L1 and L2 (i.e., the symbol-to-symbol assignment) is in the foreground when learning L2. We employed the modality-switch paradigm (Pecher et al., 2003) in both German and French versions with proficient sequential German and French bilinguals (N = 79). Participants were presented with noun-adjective pairs (e.g., keys - jingling) in both languages and decided whether the adjective could be applied to the noun. This task repeatedly requires switching modality between trials, (e.g., from auditory [keys - jingling] to olfactory [soap - perfumed]), typically causing switch costs on response latency as compared to maintaining the modality. Contrary to the hypothesis, we observed modality switch effects (MSE) in both L1 and L2. This result suggests that embodied language processing occurs not only in the first language but also extends to the second language thus challenging the assumption that L2 processing predominantly involves abstract amodal symbol processing. Notably, however, significant L1 and L2 MSEs were found for French, whereas for German already the L1 effect was rather weak (though significant); the corresponding L2 effect was not significant. Thus, the results hinted at differences between languages regarding the relative role of modal and amodal processing.

How language teachers can go beyond speech etiquette: Adapting L2 Russian coursebooks to improve pragmatic competence

Within the field of RKI – russkij kak inostrannyj ‘Russian as a Foreign Language/L2 Russian’, so far little attention has been paid to teaching pragmatic competence, as the issues of language in context are traditionally covered by the subject rečevoj ėtiket ‘speech etiquette’, leaving pragmatics an underexplored field.The present study aims to analyze whether and to what extent current L2 Russian textbooks introduce topics related to pragmatics and, if so, how the existing material can be adapted to improve explicit instruction of pragmatic competence.The analysis was conducted on two handbooks of Russian rečevoj ėtiket ‘speech etiquette’ for L2 learners and a series of four textbooks designed for L1 Italian learners. Data analysis confirms the global tendency for textbooks to provide scarce to null meta-pragmatic explanations. The coursebooks were then searched for elements related to the speech act of request, and the materials were adapted to fit explicit pragmatic instruction. The material adaptations proposed in the current study are based on previous research on Russian pragmatics and L2 pragmatics and aim to overcome the ethno-nationalistic perspective of speech etiquette toward a more transnational Russophone context. Implications for teacher education are presented.

Metalinguistic explanations and their impact on incidental grammar acquisition: An eye-movement study

Recent research highlights the value of metalinguistic explanations in facilitating second language (L2) grammar acquisition. Nevertheless, a notable research gap persists regarding how these explanations influence incidental grammar acquisition and their impact on overall reading processes and comprehension. Furthermore, whether the potentially positive effects of metalinguistic explanations transfer to the acquisition of subsequent constructions without explicit guidance is an unexplored domain. This study addresses these research gaps by recruiting 42 Korean undergraduate students and assigning them to the metalinguistic or baseline groups. The metalinguistic group read an English text supplemented with bottom-margin metalinguistic explanations, which elucidated the first half of the target grammar (without explanations for the second half), whereas the baseline group read the same text without explanations. This study used eye-tracking technology to register participants’ eye movements during reading, followed by an announced reading comprehension test and an unannounced error correction test. Statistical analyses using linear mixed-effects models (LMMs) and t-tests revealed that metalinguistic explanations significantly enhanced incidental grammar acquisition in L2 learners without compromising overall reading processes and comprehension. However, the benefits of metalinguistic explanations in the metalinguistic group failed to extend to the incidental learning of other unexplained constructions.

The Emotional Impact of L1 Learning Confidence on L2 Learning: A Case of a Study of Translation Majors in Guangxi Universities

This study aims to explore the emotional impact of the confidence developed in Chinese learning on the foreign language learning state of translation major students in universities across Guangxi. A questionnaire survey was conducted with 132 translation major students from various universities in the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region. The study found that the confidence developed during Chinese learning positively influences the learners' language learning, helping them view language learning more positively, fostering other positive emotions in the learning process, and encouraging more active engagement in bilingual interactive learning. This research fills a gap in the study of positive emotions in language learning, expands new perspectives for this research direction, and provides practical references for future studies.

International Students’ Investment in Learning Cantonese, English, Mandarin, and Portuguese in Multilingual Macao

ABSTRACT Extant literature describes challenges faced by international students, including language deficiency, culture shock, and identity crises. However, few studies have investigated international students’ second language (L2) learning in non-Anglophone higher education institutions using English as the medium of instruction (EMI), where English is used inside the classroom, and other language(s) are used outside. In a multilingual world, how international students’ L2 learning is shaped by their identities and social contexts, as multiple languages interact, is worth investigation. This study reports the L2 learning experiences of international students in Macao. Using semi-structured interviews, the researchers examined 15 participants’ routes for and negotiation of L2 learning investment in Cantonese, English, Mandarin, and Portuguese. Three main findings emerged: (a) participants’ main L2 learning routes were language courses and daily communication, with more investment in English and Mandarin than in Cantonese and Portuguese; (b) participants were discouraged from investing in L2s other than English, as they used English in Macao, identifying as “foreigners” and “deficient speakers” of other languages; (c) languages competed for participants’ limited resources, with English and Mandarin prevailing as more beneficial for their futures. This paper provides a unique perspective on the global language ecology through international student sojourners in a multilingual context.

L2 SELF-CONFIDENCE: AN EXAMINATION OF INDONESIAN UNIVERSITY STUDENTS IN VARIOUS ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES CLASSES

The study aims to investigate second/foreign language (L2) confidence of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) learners. It employed a survey method. It involved 213 ESP learners from five different departments. Using descriptive statistics on SPSS, the study found a low-moderate level of L2 self-confidence among the participants. They reported interest in engaging in speaking activities in ESP classes. Nonetheless, they reported low L2 self-confidence regarding giving opinions and leading discussions in English and a low perception of their language competence in general. This low level of confidence could be attributed to the nature of ESP classes, which necessitate learners to study discipline-related vocabulary and language expressions, as well as several general aspects of L2 learning, such as pronunciation and grammar. Implications include encouraging ESP teachers to conduct more small-group-scale activities. That is to boost learners' confidence, increase learner-talk, and provide a safe environment for less confident learners to engage in the activities. This study contributes to the understanding of Indonesian ESP learners' self-confidence, and this could inform future studies involving ESP learners in Indonesia. Future quantitative studies on L2 confidence could use more representative samples. It is also strategic to conduct a mixed-methods study involving ESP teachers to allow triangulation.

Chunking in the Second Language: Implications for Language Learning and Teaching

Among the various challenges that adult and other late language learners face on their journey to achieving nativelike proficiency, chunking has been identified as one of the most difficult tasks to master. Language users are able to derive and utilize chunks during language processing—both in the first (L1) and the second language (L2)—yet the extent to which the L2 learners utilize and benefit from chunking is not on a par with L1 speakers. L2 learners are generally less sensitive to the statistical regularities in the linguistic input and possess a smaller repertoire of multiword expressions, leaving them susceptible to slower real-time language processing, hampered comprehension during conversation, and distinct production errors. Drawing on insights from Brian MacWhinney's Unified Competition Model of L1 and L2 acquisition, this review examines these unique challenges in L2 chunking as a function of differences between L1 and L2 learning. According to the Unified Competition Model, the existence of deeply entrenched L1 linguistic representations may hinder effective L2 chunking by encouraging over-segmentation in favor of L1 transference at the lexical level and diverting the necessary attention away from the grammatical elements in prefabricated multiword units. Based on these observations, we offer practical suggestions for educators to facilitate chunking in L2 learners and bring them closer to nativelike fluency.

World Englishes and L2 pedagogy: Focus on Error Corrections

This paper hopes to identify learning difficulties of students coming from a different variety of World Englishes (WE) in learning English as a second language (ESL) focusing on Hindi English. It examines the implications of Hindi English as a WE variety on language learning and teaching. An analysis of Hindi English (HE) in English language learning is provided to help understanding of multilingual realities of communication towards a contextualization of teaching conventions. For example, what is the stance an ESL instructor might assume while dealing with influences of native language in the English language classroom? How tolerant should instructors be in recognizing “error” in L2 learning? Should ESL teachers adhere to academic rules and conventions from other settings or embrace diverse accents and language needs of ESL students? Finally, the paper proposes a dual scheme of “error correction” and “accommodation” to the way English is taught to students in the outer and expanding circles of English. Following discussions that focus on features of spoken and written English that call for a different treatment of the language skills, and considering L1 interference in L2 learning, the paper suggests that “errors” in Writing need be corrected while “mistakes” in Speaking may be “accommodated”.

From growth mindset to positive outcomes in L2 learning: Examining the mediating roles of autonomous motivation and engagement

From a positive psychology perspective, adopting a growth mindset in language learning cultivates positive learning goals and sustains motivational drive. However, the extent to which these motivational benefits translate into tangible language learning outcomes remains controversial. Drawing from the language learning motivational process model, this study investigates the predictive power of growth language mindset on second language (L2) achievement and the mediating role of autonomous motivation and engagement. High-school English language learners in China (n = 486) completed mindset, motivation, and engagement questionnaires, and we retrieved their subsequent English test scores. The results suggested that growth mindset positively, albeit weakly, predicted subsequent L2 achievement (r = .17). Further, autonomous motivation and engagement sequentially mediated the link between growth mindset and L2 achievement. Engagement also acted as an independent mediator (although this was not the case for autonomous motivation). The study provides theoretical insights into the mechanisms through which growth mindset can positively impact L2 learning, and identifies practical pedagogical implications for L2 classrooms.

Understanding the SSARC Model of Task Sequencing: Assessing L2 Writing Development

This study aimed to explore the impact of task sequencing on the development of second language (L2) writing and investigate how L2 learners performed on three decision-making writing tasks completed in different orders over nine weeks. 120 advanced-high EFL students were randomly assigned to one of three groups and given different task sequences: 1) a simple-medium-complex (SMC) sequence, 2) a complex-medium-simple sequence (CMS), or 3) a random sequence (RDM). Essays were analyzed using measures of syntactic complexity, accuracy, lexical complexity, and fluency (CALF). Results showed that the CALF of L2 writing demonstrated longitudinal development over time in all three task sequencing groups. CALF development was not immediately apparent in the first six weeks, with most measures displaying a significant increase by the end of the ninth week. Furthermore, different task sequences resulted in varying patterns and magnitudes of CALF growth, but no specific sequence was found to be superior overall.

Detecting and assessing AI-generated and human-produced texts: The case of second language writing teachers

Artificial intelligence (AI) technologies have recently attracted the attention of second language (L2) writing scholars and practitioners. While they recognize the tool’s viability, they also raised the potential adverse effects of these tools on accurately reflecting students’ actual level of writing performance. It is, therefore, crucial for teachers to discern AI-generated essays from human-produced work for more accurate assessment. However, limited information is available about how they assess and distinguish between essays produced by AI and human authors. Thus, this study analyzed the scores and comments teachers gave and looked into their strategies for identifying the source of the essays. Findings showed that essays by a native English-speaking (NS) lecturer and ChatGPT were rated highly. Meanwhile, essays by an NS college student, non-native English-speaking (NNS) college student, and NNS lecturer scored lower, which made them distinguishable from an AI-generated text. The study also revealed that teachers could not consistently identify the AI-generated text, particularly those written by an NS professional. These findings were attributed to teachers’ past engagement with AI writing tools, familiarity with common L2 learner errors, and exposure to native and non-native English writing. From these results, implications for L2 writing instruction and future research are discussed.

Glossed video keyword captions and L2 vocabulary acquisition: an eye-tracking study

The effect of video captions on vocabulary acquisition is a growing topic of interest among L2 researchers. Expanding on this line of inquiry, this study explores how keyword captions enhanced with first language (L1) and second language (L2) glosses (i.e. definitions or brief explanations of unfamiliar words) impact L2 learners’ vocabulary acquisition. This study involved 101 Korean undergraduate students randomly assigned to a baseline (keyword caption only), L1 gloss (keyword caption + L1 gloss), or L2 gloss (keyword caption + L2 gloss) group. The participants viewed a video that corresponded to their group, during which their eye movements were tracked and recorded. Subsequently, the participants completed two vocabulary tests assessing word form and meaning recall. Linear mixed-effects analysis revealed that keyword captions with L1 and L2 glosses resulted in distinct attentional allocation and contributed differently to lexical acquisition. Notably, although the three groups spent similar durations reading the target word forms, the L1 gloss group significantly outperformed the other two groups in word form recall scores. Furthermore, although the L2 gloss group spent three times longer reading L2 glosses compared to the time the L1 gloss group spent reading L1 glosses, the latter had significantly higher scores in the form translation test. These findings have significant implications for L2 pedagogy, particularly regarding the choice between target-language-exclusive or bilingual approaches.

Exploring the role of mobile-mediated dynamic assessment in L2 learners' reading comprehension and reading fluency

Exploring the role of mobile-mediated dynamic assessment in L2 learners' reading comprehension and reading fluency

Fostering Students L2 Writing Skills and Intercultural Awareness Through Digital Storytelling In Elementary Education

This paper presents a study conducted in a Greek Elementary school and explores the impact of Digital Storytelling (DST) on developing children’s second language (L2) writing skills and their intercultural awareness. The development of digital technologies has enabled the use of different multimedia tools to reconfigure traditional storytelling. The researchers’ aim was to reinforce a learner-centered approach to the teaching of writing by provoking influence in innovation of pedagogical practices that personalize learning. L2 learners of diverse cultural backgrounds attending the fifth grade (n=21) of a Greek state elementary school, were involved in composing, sharing and reflecting upon stories from their own cultural backgrounds. The researchers built an interculturally-oriented language framework for better addressing young learners’ literacies, ensuring they work in a stimulating environment, spending time online and engaging with digital applications. Qualitative and quantitative mix methods were used to estimate the feasibility of the intervention, including a pre- and post-test, teachers’ journals and focus group discussions with the L2 learners. Variables of the study were fifth graders in the context of an elementary school in Greece (independent variable) and their writing skills in Greek as a second language (dependent variable). Data processing, by means of a pre- and post-test, revealed that the DST approach provided students with opportunities to acquire improved communicative competence through writing creatively. Journal data indicated that DST application in a game-based context enhanced task engagement, encouraging young learners to use interactive media in a digital environment. Young learners’ intercultural competence development was also shown to be supported through the DST approach. In the focus group discussions, participants stated their interest and satisfaction in the approach and the methods applied. All in all, the results imply that the approach implemented has the potential to be used as a meaningful technology integration approach as far as language teaching and learning is concerned. The findings additionally explore pedagogical implications for future teaching practices in order to enhance and extend the approach and methods employed.