L2 Learners Research Articles

Structural priming facilitates L2 learning of the dative alternation in Mandarin

Abstract This study investigated whether structural priming, as a reflection of error-driven learning mechanisms, could facilitate second language (L2) learning of the dative alternation in Mandarin. We sought evidence of learning from both priming and acceptability judgment data. Participants were 25 native speakers and 41 classroom learners (CLs). After a priming session in which participants predicted and then saw what a virtual partner had written to describe pictures (prime trials, with only acceptable verb-dative pairings), CLs showed increased production of these acceptable pairings and increased acceptability ratings for them. The observation of such longer-term priming effects beyond the priming phase, together with an inverse frequency effect of priming observed among the CLs, aligns well with error-driven learning accounts. However, we did not find evidence for statistical preemption, in that participants did not decrease ratings for unacceptable pairings as a result of exposure to their competing alternatives.

Students’ perceptions of online peer feedback in process-oriented L2 writing: A qualitative inquiry

Peer feedback has been of paramount importance in second language (L2) writing given that L2 learners especially need the facilitative role of feedback in improving their writing skills. Despite recent research highlighting the benefits of peer feedback in L2 writing, there is a call for more qualitative studies situated in classroom contexts to explore the continuous flow of peer feedback in a social community including technology-enhanced interactive social settings. This case study takes the students at a university in Turkey as the center of the peer feedback process and explores how L2 writers (n = 35) using student blogs for online peer evaluation in the naturalistic setting of an academic writing course perceive online peer feedback in L2 writing. This qualitative study adopted a case study design using the data from students’ essays (210 essays), blog-mediated peer comments (on 35 student blogs), and self-reflection papers (105 reflections). The data was analyzed through Braun and Clarke’s inductive thematic analysis. The analysis resulting in four themes revealed that peer feedback experienced in an online writing community improved students’ ability to perceive and use feedback effectively by creating opportunities for a shared understanding of peer feedback and establishing a writing community and also enhanced students’ critical thinking skills as an essential aspect of the writing process. This study provides insights into the student experience of online peer feedback in L2 writing, highlighting the importance of creating a supportive and collaborative learning environment to foster effective feedback practices and enhance the students’ L2 writing skills.

Order Effects in Second Language Learning

AbstractWe explore how general principles of learning apply to and combine with usage‐based approaches to language learning and teaching, with a focus on the effects of order of exposure to new information in second language (L2) instruction. Although the effects of input spacing and timing on memory and learning have been previously explored (see Rogers, 2020; Shintani, 2017, for an overview), the effects of order of exposure to the input remain understudied. In this study, we tested whether order of exposure to information in the L2 plays a role in L2 learning and whether an optimal order where the most reliable cues are introduced first ensures that foreign language learners are better equipped to form representations that allow flexible, yet accurate generalisations. We analysed data collected through a training study that teaches the English article system to first language (L1) speakers whose language does not have markers of definiteness.

Embodied cognition and L2 sentence comprehension: an eye-tracking study of motor representations.

Evidence from neuroscience and behavioral research has indicated that language meaning is grounded in our motor-perceptual experiences of the world. However, the question of whether motor embodiment occurs at the sentence level in L2 (second language) comprehension has been raised. Furthermore, existing studies on motor embodiment in L2 have primarily focused on the lexical and phrasal levels, often providing conflicting and indeterminate results. Therefore, to address this gap, the present eye-tracking study aimed to explore the embodied mental representations formed during the reading comprehension of L2 action sentences. Specifically, it sought to identify the types of motor representations formed during L2 action sentence comprehension and the extent to which these representations are motor embodied. A total of 56 advanced L2 learners participated in a Sentence-Picture Verification Task, during which their response times (RTs) and eye movements were recorded. Each sentence-picture pair depicted an action that either matched or mismatched the action implied by the sentence. Data analysis focused on areas of interest around the body effectors. RTs in the mismatch condition indicated an impeding effect. Furthermore, fixations on the body effector executing an action were longer in the mismatch condition, especially in late eye-movement measures.

Enjoyment begets enjoyment: An experience sampling study on the impact of L2 teacher enjoyment on EFL learners’ learning enjoyment and willingness to communicate

While previous studies have separately explored learner and teacher emotions in the context of second or foreign language (L2) learning, their dynamic associations over time remain underexplored. Additionally, the impact of these reciprocal interplays on learners' communication intention has not been taken into scrutiny in L2 research. The present study investigated the relationships between trajectories of foreign language teaching enjoyment (FLTE), foreign language learning enjoyment (FLE), and L2 willingness to communicate (WTC). Using an experience sampling method, data were collected from 9 English instructors and 162 students over two weeks. The dynamic structural equation modeling analysis revealed significant positive changes in actual and perceived FLTE, FLE, and L2 WTC. Specifically, a reciprocal relationship was found between teacher and student enjoyment, with L2 students' high FLE levels correlating with higher L2 WTC. Although student-perceived FLTE remained stable, L2 teachers’ actual enjoyment fluctuated, being influenced by FLE and L2 WTC. Additionally, L2 WTC significantly impacted teacher enjoyment. On average, teachers with more development in FLTE had students with more development in their FLE and L2 WTC. Overall, the findings underscore the dynamic interplay between teacher and student emotions in L2 learning context and its consequent positive impact on learners' communication intentions. In closing, the findings are discussed in connection with educational theories, and implications are drawn for L2 teaching.

Teacher-Related Demotivating Factors Reducing Students’ L2 Learning Motivation

This study aims to reveal the factors caused by the teacher that reduce the motivation of the student towards learning Turkish. The findings indicated that demotivating factors were teachers’ instructional styles and teaching skills, teaching method, the teacher's personality, the teacher's attitude, the teacher's behaviors, the teacher's classroom management skills, the teacher's competence, the teacher's commitment to the job. This study theoretically extends previous demotivational measurements and the conceptual frameworks of L2 demotivational factors from English language learning to L2 Turkish learning. Also, It is important in terms of notable pedagogical implications are provided for L2 Turkish educators to reveal the demotivational constructions and to stimulate the motivation of L2 Turkish students. In addittion, It is essential for taking some remedial measures and taking into account the needs and expectations of the students while determining the teaching methods.

Explicit information and practice type can affect the L2 acquisition of plural marking

Abstract Previous research has indicated that explicit information (EI) about either the first language (L1) or second language (L2) along with task-essential practice can facilitate L2 learning (e.g., Fernández, 2008; McManus, 2022). However, little research has examined L1–L2 contrastive EI with L1/L2 practice. Targeting plural-marking accuracy, the present study sought to fill this gap by exposing 127 Japanese intermediate learners of English to six online treatment sessions across four conditions: (1) non-contrastive EI (pluralization rule explanation) + L2 practice, (2) contrastive EI + L2 practice, (3) as per Condition 2 + additional L1 practice (application of L2 pluralization to L1 through the Japanese suffix –tachi), and (4) using prepositions as a control, non-contrastive EI (prepositional rule explanation) + L2 practice. Accuracy was tested at pre/post/delayed intervals using an acceptability judgement task (reading) and a picture description task (writing). Statistical analyses demonstrated greater gains from the contrastive variables in the immediate post-test, with L1 practice appearing especially beneficial, despite improvements diminishing in the delayed post-test. Supplementary data from retroactive interviews and questionnaire responses indicated favourable orientations towards the intervention. The study advances understanding of how EI and practice type can be used to maximize L2 learning through web-based practices tailored to the nature of the learning problem.

The Influence of a Mother Tongue on English Pronunciation While Acquiring English as a Second Language

This study aims to investigate the role of the mother tongue on English pronunciation in the acquisition of a second language. Many people face issues while acquiring English as a second language. These issues can be divided into two main categories: the impact of a mother tongue on second language and ineffective teaching approaches. This study focuses on the first category which means the influence of the native language of the learner on their acquisition of the target language. The researcher used a mixed method in the present study and asked the participants to record their voices while pronouncing certain vowels and consonants. After that, the data were collected and analyzed from audio recordings based on the International Phonetic Alphabet system. There are 40 participants including 20 females and 20 males from four nationalities: Saudi, Mexican, Turkish, Filipino. The results showed that the findings of the study answered the research questions about the influence of the mother tongue on learners’ pronunciation while acquiring English as a second language. It showed that participants faced problems because of the influence of their mother tongue. It also answered the second research question about the difference between L2 learners’ pronunciation based on their gender. In general, there was a difference between genders when pronouncing English by learners from different countries, where male participants had higher numbers of mispronunciations than female participants.

L2 discourse marker use in interaction: The case of pues in Spanish

AbstractWhile discourse markers (DMs) are crucial for coherence and interactional competence, previous research suggests that learners' usage of DMs differs from L1 speakers. Prior research has taken either a discourse‐functional or interactional approach, yet combining these two methods may provide greater understanding of the unique learner communicative needs that drive the acquisition and use of DMs. This investigation contributes to research on interlanguage DM use by quantitatively investigating the frequency and functional distribution of the Spanish DM pues by L2 and L1 speakers of Spanish from a discourse‐functional perspective and qualitatively examining pues as an interactional resource. Oral interviews with 58 L2 and 14 L1 speakers of Spanish were analyzed, revealing distinct frequency and distributional patterns across groups and unique L2 interactional needs that are supported with the DM pues. Results inform L2 learners and teachers of the importance of DMs for interactions and provide classroom implications.

The associations between EFL learners’ L2 class belongingness, emotion regulation strategies, and perceived L2 proficiency in an online learning context

ABSTRACT Although the sense of belongingness plays a major influence in fostering intrinsic motivation and psychological well-being, scant research attention has been given to English as a foreign language (EFL) learners’ belongingness in relation to peers and teachers and its outcomes in L2 learning contexts. Additionally, despite the importance of emotion regulation in L2 education, little is known about its role in mediating the impact of L2 belongingness on self-assessment of L2 proficiency in online L2 learning environments. Therefore, the present study used survey data to examine the associations between learners’ sense of class belongingness, their preferred emotional regulation strategies (reappraisal vs. suppression) and self-perceived English proficiency, in a sample of 191 Turkish EFL university students. Path analysis results indicated significant direct paths between social belongingness with peers and academic belongingness with teachers, respectively, and the emotional regulation strategy of reappraisal. Further analysis indicated a significant indirect association between social belongingness with peers and perceived L2 proficiency through the measure of reappraisal emotional regulation. There was also a significant indirect relationship via reappraisal between academic belongingness with teachers and perceived L2 proficiency. The results are discussed in connection with self-determination theory and social identity theory, and implications are drawn for teaching.

AI translated task setup for non-native English speaking students

University classrooms are increasingly populated by students with diverse nationalities and native languages (L1). The growing number of students in English-led classrooms who speak English as a second or lower language (L2) may face added difficulties in understanding the specific task objectives or directions, as explained by native-English-speaking instructors. Emerging generative AI (genAI) technology offers new opportunities for native-English instructors to provide clear task setup in their students' L1. This single-class activity utilizes genAI software to translate English-language task setup into student L1 and enable L2 students to perform a complex and unfamiliar English comprehension task. The post-activity appraisal compares one cohort of students who performed the task with the genAI translated instructions to a cohort who performed the same task with English-language instructions. Courses English as Second Language (ESL), English Conversation, English Comprehension, and any courses in which groups of L2 students are present. Objectives L2 students will be able to perform complex, unfamiliar ESL comprehension tasks with confidence and clarity of direction. Instructors will be able to transfer this strategy to other tasks and communicate objectives and directions to their L2 students more clearly in the students' L1. This strategy may be transferred to any course with L2 learners.

Implementing collaborative pre-task planning with intermediate Arab EFL learners in a blended, task-based environment: A mixed methods study

Pre-task planning (PTP) has received scant attention in L2 writing and task-based research, especially pertaining to its effect on the writing production of intermediate, school L2 learners. This study examines mainly the influence of implementing collaborative PTP on the writing production of Arab EFL learners within blended, task-based environment. Following a mixed methods experimental design, intermediate L2 learners were distributed in planning and no-planning conditions and conducted a pre- and post-test. Students in both groups composed a number of argumentative essays over a 10-week period, which were analyzed for complexity, accuracy, fluency, ideational content, and lexical richness. Results from independent samples t-test and univariant analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) indicated several significant differences between participants' performance on the post-test compared to the pre-test but with differential effects in terms of the five measures. Analyses revealed that PTP didn't promote all the measures simultaneously, but it mainly assisted L2 writers produce enhanced content planning (idea generation, lexis, and argumentation) and resulted in greater fluency and overall improved organization and writing quality. Results of classroom observations supported the statistical results and showed that blended, task-based PTP positively impacted students' writing performance, motivation, self-confidence, and learning independence, and thus created a positive, engaging L2 writing environment. The study results were interpreted through the lens of cognitive processing theories, particularly Skehan's (1998, 2014) Limited Attentional Capacity Model and Robinson's (2001) Cognition Hypothesis, providing support to Robinson's position that PTP led to greater fluency. The use of data and methodological triangulation in this study offers new insights into the role of PTP in the L2 writing process, especially with intermediate, school learners in an authentic classroom setting, and thus contributes to the inconsistent results of previous PTP studies (Ellis, 2021).

The Effect of Age of First Exposure on Vocabulary, Mean Length of Utterance, Morphosyntactic Accuracy, and Semantic and Sentence-Level Patterns in the First 2 Years of French Second-Language Learning by Preschool- to Adolescent-Age Mandarin Speakers.

Bilingual assessment is particularly difficult in the very first period of children's second language (L2) exposure. This exploratory, longitudinal study examined L2 learning after 1 and 2 years of L2 exposure by young immigrants and how it is affected by their age at first exposure to the L2 (AoE). Participants were 18 immigrants ranging in age from 2;11 to 14;2 (years;months), all within their first year in Montreal at Time 1, enrolled in a French school or day care, and from a Mandarin first language background. Participants were tested again a year later. Measures included receptive and expressive French vocabulary tests and conversational language samples analyzed using traditional measures of mean length of utterance (MLU) and morphological accuracy as well as novel measures of semantic and sentence-level patterns. Performance was relatively high already at Time 1 and increased significantly at Time 2 in both vocabulary and MLU. At Time 2, vocabulary scores were below normative values, whereas MLU was within expected values relative to monolingual and simultaneous bilinguals for the majority of the participants. However, higher MLUs were accompanied by more instances of both semantic errors and creative semantic strategies. French performance was strongly related to AoE; with amount of exposure equivalent, older participants outperformed the younger ones on MLU and vocabulary. Semantic errors and creative uses were strongly predicted by AoE; however, morphological accuracy and number of agrammatical utterances were not. This initial period of French learning involved a rapid growth spurt for most of the participants. We argue that the pattern observed, particularly among the older children, constitutes an early stage of L2 learning characterized by long utterances that are also frequently hard to understand as speakers encounter challenges and use creative strategies in their attempt to convey meaning. Comparison with normative reference bases for monolinguals and bilinguals with greater cumulative L2 exposure who have similar MLUs should be done with much caution during this early period.

Addressing the L2 learning needs of adults with limited education

Addressing the L2 learning needs of adults with limited education

The effects of teacher motivational practice on learner L2 achievement: A self-determination theory perspective using structural equation modeling

A central point that has attracted researchers’ attention for several decades is related to establishing the causal relationship between student motivation and second language (L2) achievement. Based on self-determination theory, we investigated the effects of motivational interventions applied by English language teachers on subsequent L2 achievement through the meditating effect of students’ basic psychological need for autonomy, intrinsic motivation, and motivational intensity. To obtain precise results, we applied structural equation modeling (SEM) to examine whether the impact of the intervention on L2 achievement was direct and/or indirect. The results of SEM indicated that the effect is both direct and indirect, and the model variables explained approximately 87% of the variance in students’ achievement. Moreover, the indirect effects of the intervention on L2 achievement were significant, suggesting the key role that autonomy and intrinsic motivation played in understanding the positive impact of teacher motivational strategies on students’ language achievement. The experimental-driven findings represented by the SEM model in the present study denote a strong empirical evidence of the role of teacher motivational practice on student L2 achievement and important implications for the English as a foreign language (EFL) profession in this regard.

Exploring the effect of demographic characteristics and personality traits on attitude toward AI-assisted second language learning among Chinese college students: A multiple regression analysis

Previous research underscores the pivotal role of AI in advancing second language (L2) learning, yet gaps persist in understanding how individual differences shape L2 learners’ perceptions of AI resources. Addressing this gap, this study explored the impact of demographic characteristics (age and gender) and personality traits (extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness) on attitude toward AI-assisted L2 learning. This attitude encompasses the opinions, feelings, and beliefs individuals hold about using AI as a tool to facilitate L2 learning. Data were collected from 493 L2 learners enrolled in Chinese colleges through an online questionnaire using two validated scales. Through SPSS 26, descriptive statistics indicated a moderately high positive attitude among students. Multiple regression analyses revealed that older students and females exhibited more favorable attitude compared to their younger and male counterparts, respectively. Additionally, personality traits—excluding agreeableness—significantly influenced attitude. Besides, extroversion and neuroticism negatively predicted attitude, whereas conscientiousness and openness had positive predictive effects. Moreover, this study discusses theoretical implications and offers educational insights while suggesting avenues for future research.

The Role of Working Memory Capacity in L2 Vocabulary Learning Among Saudi EFL Students

Acquiring a second language (L2) involves complex cognitive processes, where working memory (WM) plays a crucial role. This study investigates the relationship between WM capacity and L2 vocabulary acquisition among 100 Saudi EFL learners, focusing on first-year university students. Utilizing the Automated Operation Span Task (AOSPAN) to measure WM capacity and a custom-designed vocabulary test, the study found significant correlations between WM capacity and vocabulary retention, immediate recall, and usage in context. The experimental group, which received WM training, outperformed the control group across all measures. These findings underscore the importance of WM in L2 vocabulary learning and suggest that WM training can enhance vocabulary acquisition. The study's implications for educational practices are discussed, highlighting the potential for integrating WM training into language curricula to support learners' vocabulary development. This research contributes to understanding cognitive factors in L2 learning and provides practical recommendations for educators to enhance vocabulary teaching strategies for learners with varying WM capacities.

Exploring the Use of Subtitling in Teaching and Learning English as a Foreign Language: Theories and Applications

Technology occupies a significant resource that can be exploited empirically to contribute to translation learning and research, as it can give enormous opportunities for language learners and educators to exploit in their teaching and provide students with practical learning activities. Many researchers highly recommend the extensive use of IT in enhancing the competence of translation students and L2 learners' language skills. Since there has been an abundance of empirical research studies carried out over the last two decades, many novice researchers cannot review and handle them within their limited time. For this reason, this paper introduces the key researchers who carried out studies on the employment of audiovisual translation (AVT) in language learning and teaching; it explores and reviews the main previous research studies conducted on the impact of audiovisual translation, namely subtitling and subtitles on enhancing language learning. It first considers briefly how audiovisual translation emerged as an independent branch of Translation Studies (ST), then discusses its development as well as its continuity within Translation Studies. It also explores its classifications and highlights future research avenues.

Exploring the Development of Progressive Construction in Chinese and Japanese EFL Writing: A Usage‐Based Approach

AbstractThis study investigates the developmental trajectory of progressive construction among Chinese and Japanese EFL learners through a usage‐based approach. A total of 600 written essays, produced by EFL learners from China and Japan with proficiency levels ranging from elementary to upper‐intermediate, were analyzed. The findings reveal that advanced EFL learners, irrespective of their L1 backgrounds, exhibit higher productivity in using progressive constructions, aligning more closely with native English speakers. Moreover, the results support the aspect hypothesis, as activity verbs are predominantly marked with progressive across all learner groups. As for the development of progressive construction, less prototypical verb types in progressives increase proportionally with proficiency levels in the top 10 contingencies. However, discrepancies in proportions among Chinese and Japanese EFL learners underscore the need for a further examination of the intricate patterns of non‐prototypical form‐meaning associations across L1 backgrounds. The present study bears significance in shedding light on the acquisition of tense‐aspect morphology influenced by L1 transfer and learner proficiency.

Resilient-whole: A new framework for content-based second language (L2) curriculum design and teaching at college

The COVID19 pandemic, the economic crisis, and geopolitical concerns are weighing on the entire human life. Living in the era of change and uncertainty, as a second language (L2) educator and researcher, I start to think about and work on the new meaning of L2 education. In this paper, I propose a resilient-whole framework with the goal of transforming L2 curriculum into a more reactive, adaptive, diverse and inclusive, and sustainable one that possesses the power of cultivating L2 learners’ mind–body–world alignment throughout their language learning processes. A resilient mind, namely, the ability to navigate life, adapt to change, and learn through adversity, is considered to be essential to L2 learners’ success, not only in the academic fields but also in their future career and life. With a focus on resiliency, this paper demonstrates how L2 curriculum at the college level could achieve the goal by adopting a content-based language instructional approach to course design and teaching. Specifically, resiliency is discussed from the perspectives of content-language unit design, tasks, and projects for online teaching and learning, internal and external collaborations, assessment rubrics, and student advising. It is through tightening all these aspects together, with resiliency permeating into everyday practices, that the L2 classroom is further enriched and strengthened in the era of change. This article was published open access under a CC BY-ND licence: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/ .