Kinds Of Wood Research Articles

Analysis of the composition and minerals diagrams determination of petrified wood

Fossilized wood belongs to the most exciting, however, rarely studied objects in nature. Several kinds of petrified wood with different combinations of minerals have been studied: apatite – calcite; calcite – pyrite; hematite – gypsum wood; quartz - goethite; goethite – calcite woods, from different countries and estimated as old in the time range of 1.8–306 MA. The samples cover nearly the whole time of tree existence on the Earth. The application of synchrotron radiation for X-ray microdiffraction analysis of petrified wood is presented and compared to elemental (electron microprobe) and molecular (micro Raman) analyses with the use of table-top instruments. The analysis of preserved cells permineralized with two minerals allows tracing both the structure of cell walls and the remains of ancient organic matter. Lignin is most often met among the remains of the primary organic matter and is clearly observed in all kinds of wood, except the apatite-calcite one. The Eh-pH diagrams tailored to each combination of minerals with organic matter allow to estimate the original conditions of mineralization and give the indications for the potential biomimetic synthesis.

Experiment on Influent Parameters on Wood Vinegar Burning Process

This research aims to develop a burning tank for making charcoal and experiment for the wood vinegar burning process using wood as raw material. To design, and operation of such a burning tank for making charcoal require a detailed understanding of parameters that affect the system performance. In the research, the device designed for testing and developing a burning system that can improve the distillation rate of wood vinegar. The developed system consists of two tanks, a burning tank for making charcoal, and a distrillation tank for collecting wood vinegar. The burning tank for making charcoal made of steel with 400mm diameter and 600mm long for containing 15-20 kg of wood provides tight airflow and has two exhaust ducts attached to top and bottom of the tank side. The distillation tank for collecting wood vinegar has 24 copper pipes with a diameter of 12mm, and 400mm long, resulting in a condensing surface area of 0.36 m2 The condensing pipes installed in 65 litres tank contains cool water with a temperature of 30 °C to 40 °C, used as media for removing the heat from those pipes surface. In the experiment, four influent parameters are investigated; two kinds of woods, three fire conditions of airflow rate, three moisture contents in woods are varied and two positions of exhaust duct are observed. The developed system tested by using 15 kg of Eucalyptus and River tamarind wood within 8 hours, producing 6.39L of yield wood vinegar. The experiment results show that the interaction between the new model designed and parameters significantly effect on the yield percent of wood vinegar collected. That is the effect of the prototype and those parameters can increase the wood vinegar 16 times compared to the conventional system.

Design and improvement of a simple and easy-to-use gamma-ray densitometer for application in wood industry

One of the most important indicators of wood quality is its density. Structural and physical properties of wood products, for instance their strength, are strongly related to the density of wood. Nuclear densitometry is one of the most accurate methods for measuring density that is based on attenuation detection of gamma ray flux with a certain activity. There are three main methods for density measurement by gamma rays: transmission, backscatter and reactive methods. In this paper, based on the transmission method, two experimental set-ups were prepared for measuring the density of 10 different kinds of wood within the density range of 0.317–0.819 g/cm3. By optimizing the counting time and source-to-detector distance, density of woods were measured with the accuracy of 0.01 g/cm3. Compared with the commonly used methods that are time-consuming and expensive, the proposed method is simple, rapid, precise, non-destructive, and more reliable.

Investigation of the ignition of wood structural materials (with and without fire retardant treatment) under the influence of a model fire of irregular intensity

In this paper the effect of fire front on the surface of wood samples (plywood and oriented strand board) was considered to estimate the effect of different wood-fire retardants. Infrared thermography was used as a diagnostic method. The ignition probability was estimated for the chosen experimental parameters for each kind of wood The fire hazard characteristics of wood after fire retardant treatment showed a significant reduction in the surface temperature and the resistance to fire for the chosen parameters of the experiment compared to the same untreated samples. The charring depth of the wood samples was determined depending on the type of wood, as well as on the type of the fire retardant used.

Engineering the crack path in lattice cellular materials through bio-inspired micro-structural alterations

A computational study on the fracture behaviour of bio-inspired finite-size lattice configurations is performed in this work. The study draws inspiration from recent investigations aimed at increasing the fracture energy of some materials through small modifications of their microstructure. The main question here is whether it is possible, to some extent, to engineer the crack path in metallic cellular materials through such small micro-structural modifications and how to quantify the effect of alternative strategies. Nature provides several examples of strategies used to delay or arrest damage and crack propagation. One striking example is given by the micro-architecture of several kinds of wood, in which the crack propagation through a lignin cellular matrix is affected by density variations typical of the seasonal alternation between early-wood and late-wood and by the presence of sap channels. In this study, the effects on crack propagations induced by micro-structure alterations inspired by density variations and sap channels in wood are computationally investigated and some figures of merit are defined to assess the effect on the energy absorbed by alternative solutions. In an age in which tight control of the microarchitecture can be achieved, e.g. through high-resolution 3D printing, it is of interest to investigate whether, starting from a baseline cellular architecture, it is possible to achieve superior material performance by smart modifications of the microarchitecture.

A Study on the Heat Hazard Assessment of Building Wood

본 연구는 건축용 목재의 화재위험성에대하여 열방출 특성을 중심으로 조사하였다. 열방출 성질은 cone calorimeter (ISO 5660-1)를 이용하여 측정하였으며 4종의 목재를 사용하였다. 외부 열유속 25 kW/m에서 연소시킨 후 측정된 착화시간은 35s부터 55s까지였다. 나왕(lauan)과 적송의 착화 시간은 각각 54s, 55s로 가장 지연된 값으로 얻어졌다. 최대열방출율은 156.87~235.1 kW/m2였고 화재초기의 위험성은 가문비나무가 가장 높았다. 삼나무의 평균유효연소열은 19.1 MJ/kg였고 시료들 중에서 가장 높게 나타났다. 화재성능지수(FPI)에 의한 목재의 화재위험성은 나왕(0.2468 s·m²/kW) < 적송(0.2339 s·m²/kW) < 가문비나무(0.2308 s·m²/kW) < 삼나무(0.2231 s·m²/kW) 순으로 높았고 화재성장지수(FGI)에 의한 목재의 화재위험성은 나왕(0.5088 kW/m²·s) < 적송(0.511 kW/m²·s) < 삼나무 (2.8522kW/m²·s) < 가문비나무(3.0662 kW/m²·s) 순으로 높았다. 그러므로 목재의 열방출 특성에 대한 화재위험성은 가문비나무와 삼나무가 높은 것으로 나타났다.This study was carried out with respect to the heat release rate (HRR) properties of building wood. Heat release characteristics were measured using a cone calorimeter (ISO 5660-1) with four kinds of wood. The time to ignition measured after the combustion in 25 kW/m² external heat flux was 35 to 55 s. Time to ignition of both lauan and red pine was marked with the most delayed value in each of 54 s, 55 s. The maximum heat release rate (HRR peak) was 156.87~235.1 kW/m², and the risk of early fire was highest in spruce. Total heat release of red pine was obtained in the highest value with 114.2 MJ/m². The mean effective heat of combustion of Japanese cedar was 19.1 MJ/kg and the highest among the samples. Fire risk of wood by FPI was orderly increased from lauan (0.2468 s·m²/kW), red pine (0.2339s·m²/kW), spruce (0.2308s·m²/kW) to Japanese cedar (0.2231 s·m²/kW). Fire risk of wood by FGI get increased from lauan (0.5088 kW/m²·s), red pine (0.5111 kW/m²·s), Japanese cedar (2.8522 kW/m²·s) to spruce (3.0662 kW/m²·s). Therefore, the risk of fire on the heat release characteristics of woods were found that spruce and Japanese cedar showed the high value compared with the other specimens.

A Computational Study on Crack Propagation in Bio-Inspired Lattices

A computational preliminary study on the fracture behaviour of two kinds of finite-size bio-inspired lattice configurations is presented. The study draws inspiration from recent investigations aimed at increasing the fracture energy of some materials through small modifications of their microstructure. Nature provides several examples of strategies used to delay or arrest damage initiation and crack propagation. Striking examples are provided by the micro-architecture of several kinds of wood. In this study, the effects on crack propagations induced by architectural alterations inspired by the microstructure of wood are computationally investigated. In an age in which tight control of the micro-architecture can be achieved, e.g. through high-resolution 3D printing, it is of interest to investigate whether, starting from a baseline cellular architecture, it is possible to achieve superior material performance by simple but smart topological modifications.

Are the furanic aldehydes ratio and phenolic aldehydes ratios reliable to assess the addition of vanillin and caramel to the aged wine spirit?

European regulations do not allow the addition of flavouring agents, including vanillin, and permit the caramel to be added quantum satis (as a means to adapt colour) to the wine spirit. Therefore, monitoring the authenticity and the caramel content of this beverage in order to prevent unfair competition between producers and to protect the consumer is imperative. This work presents the use of multivariate analysis and control charts, based on the ratios between furanic aldehydes and between phenolic aldehydes, as a simple, rapid, and reliable tool to discriminate aged wine spirits to which vanillin and/or high amount of caramel was added. A representative set of samples, consisting of 288 authentic aged wine spirits collected from trials and 11 commercial brandies, was used to classify 34 commercial aged wine spirits. Despite the high variability inherent to these authentic aged drinks induced by the kind of wood and toasting level, the Factor Analysis performed allowed to firstly separated the authentic samples from the commercial ones, and discriminate the unknown samples of commercial aged wine spirits as authentic or suspect to have been added of vanillin and/or high amount of caramel. The upper control limit (UCL) of the individuals control charts obtained from trials’ data - 0.621 for HMF/furfural ratio; 1.165 for vanillin/syringaldehyde ratio; 1.379 for vanillin/coniferaldehyde ratio; 1.438 for vanillin/sinapaldehyde ratio; 0.416 for vanillin/syringaldehyde + coniferaldehyde + sinapaldehyde ratio – proved to be of paramount importance in refining the analysis and identifying the samples with added vanillin (non-authentic) and/or containing high amount of caramel.

Comparative transcriptomic analysis of Cerrena unicolor revealed differential expression of genes engaged in degradation of various kinds of wood

To explore the number of enzymes engaged by Cerrena unicolor FCL139 for wood degradation, the transcriptomes of the fungus growing on birch, ash, maple sawdust and the control liquid medium were analyzed. Among 12,966 gene models predicted for the C. unicolor genome, 10,396 all-unigenes were detected, of which 9567 were found to be expressed in each of the tested growth media. The highest number (107) of unique transcripts was detected during fungus growth in the control liquid medium, while the lowest number (11) – in the fungal culture comprising maple saw dust. Analysis of C. unicolor transcriptomes identified numerous genes whose expression differed substantially between the mycelia growing in control medium and each of the sawdust media used, with the highest number (828) of upregulated transcripts observed during the fungus growth on the ash medium. Among the 294 genes that were potentially engaged in wood degradation, the expression of 59 was significantly (p < .01) changed in the tested conditions. The transcripts of 37 of those genes were at least four times more abundant in the cells grown in all sawdust media when compared to the control medium. Upregulated genes coding for cellulases and, to a lower extent, hemicellulases predominated during fungus growth on sawdust. Transcripts encoding cellulolytic enzymes were the most abundant in mycelia grown on birch and maple while lower number of such transcripts was detected in fungus growing on ash. The expression pattern of lignolytic activities-coding genes was strongly dependent on the type of sawdust applied for fungus growth medium.

Determination of uronic acids and neutral carbohydrates in pulp and biomass by hydrolysis, reductive amination and HPAEC-UV

AbstractThe exact quantification of all carbohydrate constituents in wood and pulp is a challenge because of the various glycosidic linkages of the polysaccharides with different stabilities. The individual detector responses for the compounds in the hydrolysates additionally complicate the quantification as pure standards for 4-O-methyl-α-D-glucuronic acid (meGlcA) and related oligosaccharides are not commercially available for calibration. In the present paper, a new analytical procedure is presented, based on the reductive amination of the carbohydrates obtained via acidic and enzymatic hydrolysis of the polysaccharides before quantification by means of high performance anion exchange chromatography (HPAEC) and UV-detection. This approach was suitable for the analysis of neutral carbohydrates and uronic acids obtained via enzymatic hydrolysis from bleached pulps. In the case of unbleached pulps, the enzymatic hydrolysis was not complete and unhydrolyzed nano-scaled and micro-scaled particles remained in the hydrolysates as detected by dynamic light scattering (DLS) measurements. The new HPAEC-UV methodology was also applied to kraft pulps and a sulfite pulp; six different kinds of wood as well as wheat straw and bagasse. All relevant monosaccharides and the dimer of meGlcA and xylose could be detected in the hydrolysates. Accordingly, significantly higher yields of meGlcA were found compared to literature data.

Pulp depitching in the bisulfite pulping step

OS-20 nonionic surfactant produced in Russia was used as a depitching additive in bisulfite pulping. OS-20 ensures efficient depitching of bisulfite pulp produced from various kinds of wood (spruce, aspen, birch wood or their blends). The strongest decrease in the total and “harmful” pitch content in pulping in the presence of the surfactant was reached for spruce and aspen wood and for the blend of spruce and birch wood.

Studying the effect of fire retardant coating on the fire hazard characteristics of wood using infrared thermography

This paper represents a study concerning the effect of fire retardant treatment «FUKAM» on the fire hazard characteristics of pine, aspen and larch. The front of model ground fire was investigated to estimate its effect on the surface of wood samples. Infrared thermography was used as a diagnostic method. The surface temperature distribution was obtained for the test wood samples after exposure to a fire front that was modeled using pine needles. The probability of ignition was estimated for the chosen experimental parameters for each kind of wood. The fire hazard characteristics of wood after fire retardant treatment showed a significant reduction in the surface temperature and the resistance to fire for the chosen parameters of the experiment compared to the same untreated samples.

Specie – treatment - adhesive combinations for glulam purpose

Glued laminated timber is an engineered product that requires precision manufacturing in all its stages. The finished product can only be tested in laboratory conditions. However, it is necessary to have quality control in the production to ensure that the properties of the glulam are appropriate to the product specified requirements in accordance with the standards. In Brazil is still no specific standard of qualification for the manufactures of Glulam. In this context, different kinds of wood, adhesives and preservative treatments in the composition of Glulam can be used. This paper aims to evaluate the proposed trials conducted with combinations of four Brazilian reforestation species, three adhesives and three types of preservative treatment. As a result was observed that combinations, which showed the best performance, were pine and parica wood, with any type of adhesive or treatment investigated, which can be used in exterior applications. Lyptus ® wood for any combination of treatments falls into the internal use class. Teak wood can be used indoors (adhesive polyurethane and all kinds of treatment) or external (phenol resorcinol formaldehyde adhesive and all kinds of treatment).

Chemical profiling and adulteration screening of Aquilariae Lignum Resinatum by Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy and two-dimensional correlation infrared (2D-IR) spectroscopy

As a kind of expensive perfume and valuable herb, Aquilariae Lignum Resinatum (ALR) is often adulterated for economic motivations. In this research, Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy is employed to establish a simple and quick method for the adulteration screening of ALR. First, the principal chemical constituents of ALR are characterized by FT-IR spectroscopy at room temperature and two-dimensional correlation infrared (2D-IR) spectroscopy with thermal perturbation. Besides the common cellulose and lignin compounds, a certain amount of resin is the characteristic constituent of ALR. Synchronous and asynchronous 2D-IR spectra indicate that the resin (an unstable secondary metabolite) is more sensitive than cellulose and lignin (stable structural constituents) to the thermal perturbation. Using a certified ALR sample as the reference, the infrared spectral correlation threshold is determined by 30 authentic samples and 6 adulterated samples. The spectral correlation coefficient of an authentic ALR sample to the standard reference should be not less than 0.9886 (p=0.01). Three commercial adulterated ALR samples are identified by the correlation threshold. Further interpretation of the infrared spectra of the adulterated samples indicates the common adulterating methods - counterfeiting with other kind of wood, adding ingredient such as sand to increase the weight, and adding the cheap resin such as rosin to increase the content of resin compounds. Results of this research prove that FT-IR spectroscopy can be used as a simple and accurate quality control method of ALR.

Physicochemical and sensory evaluation of wine brandies aged using oak and chestnut wood simultaneously in wooden barrels and in stainless steel tanks with staves

SummaryThis study provides innovative information on the simultaneous use of Limousin oak and chestnut wood in the ageing of wine brandy. Ageing was performed in 650‐L wooden barrels and in 3000‐L stainless steel tanks with staves over a 2‐year period. Effect of both kinds of wood in the brandy features depended on the ageing technology. Stainless steel tanks with staves originated lower enrichment of the brandy in dry extract (0.89 vs. 1.25 g L−1), total phenolics (22.33 vs. 29.40) and low molecular weight extractable compounds (119.83 vs. 231.65 mg L−1), but promoted a faster evolution of the analytical colour (lower L*, higher C*, a* and b*) and sensory colour (topaz and greenish vs. golden). The aroma and flavour profiles of the brandy were not significantly influenced by the ageing technology. Therefore, it is a promising option for both ageing technologies because it ensures the quality of brandy, together with a lower cost of the wood and exemption of the blending operation.

Response of Wood Bars to Non-Destructive Impact

The wood bars with rectangular cross section (25 × 25 mm, 300 mm in length) were impacted by an aluminum cylindrical bar in R and T directions. The wood response to this loading was characterized by the displacement of the surface of the bar. The time history of this response has been measured by a double channel laser vibrometer. The analysis of response functions was performed both in the time and frequency domain. The bar response to the impact is described using the transfer function. The knowledge of this function enables to predict the surface displacement at the given point for various forces. It is shown that the history of the surface displacement in direction of its propagation exhibits the same qualitative features independently of the kind of wood in the direction of impact and of the position of wave detection. Experiments were performed on bars made from five tree species: Pinus sylvestris L., Picea abies (L.) Karst., Fagus sylvatica, Quercus robur and Populus nigra.

The research of parallel to the grain compression performance test of laminated glued bamboo-wood composites

Original scientific paper Research of bamboo-wood composites compression performance provides a basis for material selections for prestressed glued bamboo-wood beams and other components whose compression is mainly shared by glued bamboo-wooden composites. Four kinds of wood and two kinds of bamboo were selected to comprise 22 groups (6 specimens each group) divided into 4 batches to study the influence factors on bamboo/wooden material type; factors such as composition pattern, layer plate thickness, and lamina lay-ups type. Compressive strength, elasticity modulus, ductility, and failure mechanisms were all compared and analysed. Results showed that failure modes were mainly oblique shear failure, laminates bending failure, laminates tackless failure, while the end local pressure and overall bending failure occured less frequently. Compressive strength of bamboo was 1,5 ÷ 2 times higher than that of wood. Elastic modulus of the two was similar, which makes them commonly used in foundations. After being compounded, compressive strength improved. After being combined with glued bamboo, it increased by 1,26 ÷ 32,05 %, and it increased by 0,80 ÷ 45,86 % with reconsolidated bamboo. Bamboo-wood composites have high strength and good ductility, which can meet engineering requirements.

Bara en härd !

The purpose of this article is to discuss possible interpretations of quite a common kind of prehistoric site consisting of single hearths without any visible context. The examined sites are located in Västergötland, in an area that was relatively sparsely inhabited during the Bronze Age and Iron Age. The function of the hearths has been studied in detail in regard to three aspects ; whether they were energy efficient, whether they have been reused and if particular kinds of wood have been used as fuel. Depending on their context, they were then analysed according to four different suggested interpretations, to find out if they might have been meeting places, boundary marks, temporary resting places for travellers or places for shepherds in an organised system of cattle herding. Along with pollen diagrams, the results of the study indicate an increase of grazing in the area. This suggests thatmost of the sites with hearths were resting places for shepherds.

A New Music Instrument from Ancient Times: Modern Reconstruction of the Greek Lyre of Hermes using 3D Laser Scanning, Advanced Computer Aided Design and Audio Analysis

The current paper proposes a unique approach by examining the ancient Greek literature and antique black figure amphorae’s representations (also known as melanomorpha) for the reconstruction, after digital design processing, of a modern top-quality replica of an ancient tortoise lyre. Through the review of certain ancient Greek documents, the observation of the amphorae’s relevant representations, 3D scanning and reverse engineering as well as 3D design using advanced Computer Aided Design (CAD) software, this study illustrates the detailed drawings and the fabrication procedures followed for a modern version of the ancient musical instrument. By using only materials available in antiquity such as specific kinds of wood, tortoise carcasses and sheep strings, as well as modern carpentry technology, a high-quality musical instrument was produced suited for use by today’s professional musicians. Two variations were produced and tested utilizing the Phrygian and Lydian ancient Greek music scales in a specialized unechoic chamber, in order to define their sound properties. Typical statistics were computed in the frequency domain such as spectral centroid, spectral standard deviation, spectral skewness, spectral kurtosis along with spectral rolloff and spectral smoothness in order to justify the lyres’ quality as musical instruments. The result was a prototype music product using advanced 3D design procedures that can be produced in a rather repeatable manner.

Biodiversity of nematodes in “Tectona grandis” of Adilabad district forest

Nematode population was studied in Tectona grandis (Teak) forest plants in Adilabad district. Plant parasitic nematodes were identified based on morphology and is often difficult as the characters, nematodes associated with Tectona grandis (Teak). Xiphinema, Hemicycliophora, Hoplolaimus, Paralongidorus, Longidorus, while Tectonia grandis, Emblica officinalis, Syzygium cuminii, and Careya arborea had most nematodes in the rhizosphere. Soil samples are collected from 3 locations in Adilabad forest district by symptoms caused by these nematodes are somewhat similar to nutrient deficiency symptoms, such as stunting and yellowing of plants and cause galling of roots. At the site of infection of Hoplolaimus species many lateral roots may emerge giving the root system a ‘bushy’ appearance. White females of cyst nematodes can be seen as small, white, pearl-like bodies on the roots. Environmental factors such as soil type, temperature, moisture and nutrient level play a major role in the expression of nematode-induced symptoms. Teak lumber comes from a tropical tree “ Tectona grandis ”, which grow in the Southeast part of Asia. However, one can find this kind of wood growing in many places around the world but Burma is the main exporter of Teak lumber. It was used especially in the manufacture of the outdoor furniture and boat decks construction. Uses of Tectona grandis is the source of a high quality general purpose hardwood known as teak. The timber is used for ship decking, flooring, furniture and construction. It is particularly recommended for construction in seaside environments (such as bridges and docks) because it is resistant to shipworm, a wood-boring sea mollusc ( Teredo spp., Teredinidae). Quinones in the sawdust inhibit the growth of several species of the fungi that cause wood rot. Plant parasitic nematodes are microscopic, identification of nematode species based of morphological is often difficult as the characters, below are the nematodes associated with Tectona grandis .