Jet Fuel Research Articles

Boosted Bio-Jet production: Unveiling the potential of a one-stage concurrent process of deoxygenation/upgrading versus two-stage sequential processes using Pt/Cl-Al2O3@Ni/ZSM-5 catalysts

Bio-jet fuel production from renewable bioresources is an increasingly attractive approach for mitigating the environmental impacts of aviation. Among the different methods available for deriving bio-jet fuel from fatty acids, catalytic hydroprocessing has emerged as a promising and commercially viable technique. Recent studies have focused on identifying suitable catalysts to produce kerosene-type bio-jet fuel, which can serve as blend stocks for aviation fuel after further cracking and isomerization. In this study, a bi-layer catalyst Pt/Cl-Al2O3@Ni/ZSM-5 catalyst was prepared and characterized using various techniques (including XRD, TEM, NH3–TPD, FTIR, H2–TPR, XPS, surface area, and pore size measurements). The thus-prepared catalyst is tested for bio-jet fuel production from Palm kernel oil (PKO). A novel one-stage process yields a high iso-alkane content with a low freezing point of –57 °C. The proposed Pt/Cl-Al2O3@Ni/ZSM-5 bi-layer catalysts in a one-stage process provided satisfactory results, with a conversion rate of 96%. The primary component of the resulting bio-jet fuel was alkanes in the C8-C16 range, with an isomers/normal-alkane (I/N) ratio of 2 and a proportion of 75.6 wt%. Interestingly, the produced bio-jet fuel using the one-stage strategy has significant potential for use as a blend stock to enhance the properties of traditional jet fuels (Jet A and Jet A-1, JP-5, and JP-8).

Hydrotreating of Palm Oil into Bio Jet Fuel through a One-Step Process over Nb Doping Pt/AlSiO-Nb Catalyst

Hydrotreating of Palm Oil into Bio Jet Fuel through a One-Step Process over Nb Doping Pt/AlSiO-Nb Catalyst

Life cycle assessment of an innovative alcohol-to-jet process: The case for retrofitting a bioethanol plant for sustainable aviation fuel production

This paper aims to carry out an integrated Life Cycle Assessment to evaluate the environmental performance of retrofitting an existing first-generation ethanol plant for sustainable aviation fuel production. Two scenarios are defined, considering: (i) the incorporation of an alcohol-to-jet conversion pathway into a current bioethanol plant in Spain to produce synthetic paraffinic kerosene with aromatics biofuel, and (ii) the operation of two different plants, namely, an existing bioethanol production facility and a new-build ATJ plant. Results indicate that the global warming impact associated with the retrofitting of the bioethanol facility is 44.15 gCO2eq per MJ of final fuels produced. The main GHG impact is associated with the operation of both the cogeneration system (∼42 %) and the natural gas boilers (∼25 %) to cover the heat and power requirements of the bioethanol facility. Findings concerning the climate change impact of the new-build ATJ plant exhibit analogous behavior; the GHG impact is estimated at 44.53 gCO2eq/MJfuels. Future electricity supply mixes with high shares of renewables could lead to substantially lower GHG emissions (up to 61 %) in aviation fuel production, as compared to conventional jet fuels. The replacement of natural gas with sustainable alternatives could further decrease the global warming impact up to 97 %.

Sustainable Aviation Fuel Production through Catalytic Processing of Lignocellulosic Biomass Residues: A Perspective

Currently, the transportation sector represents about one third of the total energy consumed in the world, most of this energy being obtained almost exclusively from oil. However, the world is changing, as well as the aviation industry. Since lignocellulosic biomass is a low-cost feedstock that does not compete with food, it has drawn great attention as one of the most attractive alternatives to replace fossil feedstocks for the production of fuels. Renewable jet fuels could have a significant impact on lowering greenhouse gas emissions and providing a long-term sustainable alternative to petroleum-derived fuels. However, the catalytic upgrading of lignocellulosic residues in industry still remains a big challenge and the development of highly integrated systems that allow the direct conversion of lignocellulosic wastes is essential to achieve that goal. The importance of renewable jet fuels and the potential of lignocellulosic biomass have already been extensively reviewed. However, this work presents a new perspective on the main catalytic routes and challenges for the sustainable production of aviation fuels from biomass wastes.

Techno-Economic Evaluation of Jet Fuel Production via an Alternative Gasification-Driven Biomass-to-Liquid Pathway and Benchmarking with the State-of-the-Art Fischer–Tropsch and Alcohol-to-Jet Concepts

Around 65% of the mitigation needed for the targeted net-zero carbon aviation emissions in 2050 is expected to come from Sustainable Aviation Fuels (SAFs). In this study, an alternative gasification-driven Biomass-to-Liquid (BtL) concept for the production of SAFs is introduced and evaluated. In particular, a fuel synthesis scheme based on the double-stage fermentation of the produced syngas (syngas → acetic acid → TAGs) is assessed instead of the conventional Fischer-Tropsch (FT) or Alcohol-to-Jet (AtJ) synthesis. The objective of the present work is the techno-economic evaluation of a large-scale (200 MWth) replication of the mentioned BtL concept, whose performance has been simulated in Aspen PlusTM (V.11) with reasonable upscaling considerations and models validated at a pilot scale. The estimated baseline Total Capital Investment (TCI) of €577 million lies in the typical range of €500–700 million that many recent techno-economic studies adopt for gasification-driven BtL plants of similar capacity, while the estimated annual operating costs of €50 million correspond to a 15–40% OpEx reduction compared to such plants. A discounted cash flow analysis was carried out, and a baseline Minimum Jet Selling Price (MJSP) equal to 1.83 €/L was calculated, while a range of 1.38–2.27 €/L emerged from the sensitivity analysis. This study sets the biological conversion of gasification-derived syngas into triglycerides (TAGs) as a promising alternative route for the production of SAFs. In general, gasification-driven BtL pathways, led by the relatively mature FT and AtJ technologies, are capable of thriving in the coming years based on their capability of advanced feedstock flexibility.

Assessment of Sustainable Aviation Fuel Production Methods: A Promethee II Approach

Sustainable aviation fuels (SAF) present a feasible solution to decarbonize modern aviation. Unlike traditional jet fuels, SAFs are produced in a variety of ways, thereby choosing one of these processes as a complicated Multi-Criteria Decision challenge that involves conflicting priorities. This study evaluates SAF production processes using a multicriteria methodology, PROMETHEE-2. With SAF technology in its nascent stage and limited data, several stakeholders in the aviation sector were enlisted to assist in the collection of data and preferences. The suggested framework’s strength lies in its adaptability to suit the subjective opinions of diverse stakeholders, selection of ranking system, and robustness of outcomes. This research engaged stakeholders in a participative manner to rank 11 (A1 to A11) SAF production paths based on 24 parameters categorized into social, environmental, economic, and technological evaluation criteria. Industry professionals were given a form to rate SAF production methods according to a performance criterion. Data is validated using fuzzy TOPSIS and fuzzy VIKOR and PROMETHEE-II to reduce professionals’ judgmental personal prejudice. Results indicate the optimal feedstock for SAF production is the direct transition process of CO2 to SAF (A11) in the gasification or Fischer-T synthesis group.

Simultaneous Rapid Detection of Multiple Physicochemical Properties of Jet Fuel Using Near-Infrared Spectroscopy.

Jet fuel is the primary fuel used in the aviation industry, and its quality has a direct impact on the safety and operational efficiency of aircraft. The accurate quantitative detection and analysis of various physicochemical property indicators are important for improving and ensuring the quality of jet fuel in the domestic market. This study used near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy to establish a suitable model for the simultaneous and rapid detection of multiple physicochemical properties in jet fuel. Using more than 40 different sources of jet fuel, a rapid detection model was established by optimizing the spectral processing methods. The measurement models were separately built using the partial least-squares (PLS) and orthogonal PLS algorithms, and the model parameters were optimized. The results show that after the Savitzky-Golay second derivative preprocessing, the PLS model built using the feature spectra selected by the uninformative variable elimination wavelength algorithm achieved the best measurement performance. Compared with the PLS model without preprocessing, the range of the resulting accuracy improvement was at least 15.01%. Under the optimal model parameters, the calibration set regression coefficient (Rc2) of the 11 jet fuel property index models ranged from 0.9102 to 0.9763, with the root-mean-square error of calibration values up to 0.8468 °C (for flash points). The regression coefficient (Rp2) of the validation set ranged from 0.8239 to 0.9557, with the root-mean-square error of prediction values up to 1.1354 °C (for flash points). The ratios of prediction to deviation (RPD) values were all in the range of 1.9-3.0, indicating high accuracy and reliability of the model. The rapid NIR analysis method established in this study enables the simultaneous and rapid detection of multiple physicochemical properties of jet fuel, thereby providing effective technical support for ensuring the quality of jet fuel in the market.

Ignition of Aircraft Combustible Fluids by Hot Surface Under Ventilation

Abstract Flight-fire is a crucial factor that affects the safety of aircraft. It mainly results from combustible fluids leakages on hot surfaces. Hence, this study investigates the ignition probability of a droplet on a hot surface under ventilation through experiments. Specifically, two types of widely used combustible fluids, No.3 Jet Fuel and Mobile Jet Oil II, were investigated at varying surface temperatures ranging from 500°C to 700°C. This range covers the non-ignition to sure-ignition temperatures for the two fluids. The experiments were carried out considering the actual ventilation conditions of an aircraft, wherein the air flow rate ranged from 0 m/s to 3 m/s, and the air flow temperature ranged from room temperature to 380°C. The experimental results indicates that environmental factors have significant influence on droplet ignition probability, ignition probability corresponds with the air flow temperature but is opposite to the air flow rate. Furthermore, the degree of influence on ignition probability varies with the type of combustible liquid. The critical temperatures for non-ignition and sure-ignition on hot surface for No. 3 Jet Fuel and Mobile Jet Oil II under ventilation conditions have been acquired. Additionally, an empirical model is established to determine the ignition probability of No. 3 Jet Fuel under ventilation. The results of this work have instructional significance for aircraft fire protection design and airworthiness certificate of aircraft fire safety.

An ONIOM-Based High-Level Thermochemistry Study on Hydrogen Abstraction Reactions of Large Straight-Chain Alkanes by Hydrogen, Hydroxyl, and Hydroperoxyl Radicals

Accurate thermochemical data are of great importance in developing quantitatively predictive reaction mechanisms for transportation fuels, such as diesel and jet fuels, which are primarily composed of large hydrocarbon molecules, especially large straight-chain alkanes containing more than 10 carbon atoms. This paper presents an ONIOM[QCISD(T)/CBS:DFT]-based theoretical thermochemistry study on the hydrogen abstraction reactions of straight-chain alkanes, n-CnH2n+2, (n = 1–16) by hydrogen (H), hydroxyl (OH), and hydroperoxyl (HO2) radicals. These reactions, with n ≥ 10, pose significant computational challenges for prevalent high-level ab initio methods. However, they are effectively addressed using the ONIOM-based method. One notable aspect of this study is the consideration of the high symmetry of straight-chain alkanes. This symmetry allows us to study half of the reactions, employing a generalized approach. Therefore, a total of 216 reactions are systematically studied for the three reaction systems. Our results align very well with those from the widely accepted high-level QCISD(T)/CBS method, with discrepancies between the two generally less than 0.10 kcal/mol. Furthermore, we compared large straight-chain alkanes (n-C16H34 and n-C18H38) with large methyl ester molecules (C15H31COOCH3 and C17H33COOCH3) to elucidate the impact of functional groups (ester group and C=C double bond) on the reactivity of the long-chain structure. These findings underscore the accuracy and efficiency of the ONIOM-based method in computational thermochemistry, particularly for large straight-chain hydrocarbons in transportation fuels.

Indications of Endocrine Disruptor Effects of JP-5 Jet Fuel Using a Rat-Model Reproductive Study and an In Vitro Human Hormone Receptor Assay.

Recent events concerning jet fuel contamination of drinking water have shown that we need a better understanding of the effects of ingested jet fuel. To this end, a reproductive study with ingested jet fuel in rats was undertaken with relatively high concentrations of Jet Propellant (JP)-5 along with a human estrogen receptor activation in vitro assay using JP-5, JP-8, and an alternative jet fuel derived from the camelina plant referred to as HydroRenewable Jet (HRJ) fuel, to help evaluate potential effects of ingested jet fuel. The results of the in vivo study provide evidence that JP-5 can act as an endocrine disruptor, with specific observations including altered hormone levels with JP-5 exposure (significantly lower estradiol levels in male rats and significantly increased Dehydroepiandrosterone levels in females), and a decreased male/female offspring ratio. The in vitro hormone receptor activation assay indicated that JP-5 and JP-8 are capable of upregulating human estrogen receptor (ER) activity, while HRJ was not active in the ER assay. The jet fuels were not able to activate androgen or glucocorticoid receptors in further in vitro assays. These results infer potential endocrine disruption associated with JP-5, with activation of the estrogen receptor as one potential mechanism of action.

Airborne Exposure to Pollutants and Mental Health: A Review with Implications for United States Veterans.

Inhalation of airborne pollutants in the natural and built environment is ubiquitous; yet, exposures are different across a lifespan and unique to individuals. Here, we reviewed the connections between mental health outcomes from airborne pollutant exposures, the biological inflammatory mechanisms, and provide future directions for researchers and policy makers. The current state of knowledge is discussed on associations between mental health outcomes and Clean Air Act criteria pollutants, traffic-related air pollutants, pesticides, heavy metals, jet fuel, and burn pits. Although associations between airborne pollutants and negative physical health outcomes have been a topic of previous investigations, work highlighting associations between exposures and psychological health is only starting to emerge. Research on criteria pollutants and mental health outcomes has the most robust results to date, followed by traffic-related air pollutants, and then pesticides. In contrast, scarce mental health research has been conducted on exposure to heavy metals, jet fuel, and burn pits. Specific cohorts of individuals, such as United States military members and in-turn, Veterans, often have unique histories of exposures, including service-related exposures to aircraft (e.g. jet fuels) and burn pits. Research focused on Veterans and other individuals with an increased likelihood of exposure and higher vulnerability to negative mental health outcomes is needed. Future research will facilitate knowledge aimed at both prevention and intervention to improve physical and mental health among military personnel, Veterans, and other at-risk individuals.

PLIF Flame Study on the Qualitative and Quantitative Measurement of OH Species for Conventional and Alternative Jet Fuels; Experimental and Theoretical Investigations

ABSTRACT The hydroxyl molecule is one of the most important intermediate species in the chemistry of combustion processes and plays an important role in the chemical reactions of a hydrocarbon-air flame. However, investigation on a laser-based quantitative measurement of OH in heavy liquid hydrocarbon flames remains very scarce. Thus, in this study, OH radicals were measured qualitatively with the aid of planar laser-induced fluorescence in atmospheric pressure studies of burner stabilized laminar flames of kerosene and alcohol-to-jet (ATJ) fuel. These qualitative profiles were then put on a quantitative basis by analysis of the impact of temperature on the Boltzmann distribution of OH over the ground electronic state rotational energy levels and the use of a simple methane reference flame and its modeling using ANSYS Chemkin-Pro. The quantitative profiles in turn were used to validate the developed chemical kinetic mechanisms of kerosene and ATJ combustion. An experimental apparatus has been developed to investigate the temperature profile and the OH relative amounts of kerosene and ATJ laminar flames in an optimized premixed flat flame burner, under three different air/fuel ratio conditions. Fine wire type thermocouples were applied to provide reliable temperature profiles for the fuel flames. In general, reasonable agreement were observed between the experimental OH results and the simulations for the target fuel flames in the case of kerosene, while a higher peak value of OH was predicted in the ATJ model output compared to the PLIF derived data.

Kinematic viscosity prediction of jet fuels and alternative blending components via comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography, partial least squares, and Yeo-Johnson transformation.

This work presents an accurate yet simplified partial least squares model to predict the kinematic viscosity of conventional and alternative jet fuels at -20°C using comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled to a flame ionization detector (GC×GC/FID). Three different normalization methods (mean-centering, logarithmic, and Yeo-Johnson) were evaluated to identify their impact in the prediction of middle distillates' physical properties. Results using Yeo-Johnson transformation exhibited improved viscosity prediction capabilities over the validation set with a mean absolute percentage error of 5.3%, a root-mean-squared error of 0.23, and a coefficient of determination (R2 ) of 0.9404 using only 10 latent variables. Unlike previously reported correlations, this model allowed the identification of specific hydrocarbon groups and carbon numbers that drive jet fuel viscosity at low temperatures. The presence of even small amounts of large branched-alkanes (C15 -C17 ), dicyclic-alkanes (C10 ), and cycloaromatics (C11 ) have the potential to strongly increase the kinematic viscosity of jet fuels. Contrastingly, light monocycloalkanes and branched-alkanes (≤ C10 ) were associated with lower viscosity values. Novelly, this model suggests the implementation of Yeo-Johnson transformations to predict the physical properties of middle distillates to further improve the performance metrics of partial least squares models based on GC data.

Mini Gaz Türbini (MGT) Motorunda Aspir Metil Ester-Jet A1 Karışımlarının Kullanımının Performans ve Emisyonlara Etkisinin Araştırılması

This study focused on the investigation of the effect of the SME-Jet A1 mixture on the thrust performance, fuel consumption and pollutant emissions of a small-scale jet engine, also the alternative of safflower methyl ester (SME) to Jet A1 fuel. The experiments were carried out by using bio jet fuels obtained by mixing Jet A1 and the fuel produced from safflower oil in taxi, approach, climb and take-off power cycles of a jet engine. The thrust forces of both types of fuel obtained from the percentage power values of the aircraft under real operating conditions were determined and accordingly CO, HC, CO2 emissions, fuel consumption and exhaust gas temperature measurements were made. As a result of the measurements, approximately 27.5% reduction in thrust was observed with the use of biojet. In addition, HC emissions decreased by up to 51%, while CO emissions increased by 30% at take off while being closer to each other at low rpm. While the CO2 emissions of methyl ester increased by 8-16% depending on the speed change, fuel consumption, while at an acceptable level at low rpm, exceeded 50% at take off.

Investıgation of the Effects of Alcohol and Anti-Icing Additives on the Properties of Jet Fuel

In this study, the effects of methanol, ethanol, isopropanol, and Diethylene glycol monomethyl ether (di-EGME) added to jet fuel in certain proportions on the properties of jet fuel such as density, viscosity, freezing point, and ignition point was examined. By adding 2%, 5%, 7%, and 10% of each additive to JP-8 fuel, the required mixture was obtained and tested in the relevant devices. As a result of the experiments, it was determined that the density value of JP-8 fuel was 797 kg/m3 and this value did not vary greatly in the mixed ethanol, ethanol, and isopropanol, but with the addition of di-EGME, it increased significantly and reached 814.5 kg/m3. It was observed that the viscosity value did not vary greatly with the addition of methanol and ethanol but increased to 1.298 mm/s2 with the addition of 10% isopropanol and to 1.98 mm/s2 with the addition of di-EGM. The ignition point value of JP-8 fuel, which is 46 °C, was measured to be 40 °C with the addition of 10% methanol, 43.4 °C with the addition of 10% ethanol, 42.9 °C with the addition of 10% isopropanol, and 55.4 °C with the addition of di-EGM. The freezing point value of JP-8 fuel, which is -56.7 °C, was measured as -61.7 °C with the addition of 10% methanol, -62.1 °C with the addition of 10% of ethanol, -57.6 °C with the addition of 10% isopropanol and -54.6 °C with the addition of di-EGM.

Construction of a Small-Sized Simplified Chemical Kinetics Model for the Simulation of n-Propylcyclohexane Combustion Properties

The development of a compact mechanism has made a great contribution to work on the combustion of hydrocarbon species and facilitates the investigations on chemical kinetics and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) studies. N-propylcyclohexane (NPCH) is one of the important components for jet, diesel, and gasoline fuels which needs a reliable compact reaction kinetics mechanism. This study aims to investigate the construction of a well-validated mechanism for NPCH with a simplified chemical kinetics model that delivers a good prediction ability for the key combustion parameters in a wide range of conditions (temperatures, pressures, and equivalence rates). The NPCH reaction kinetic mechanism was constructed with the aid of a coupling process, simplification process, rate modification, and a combination of standard reduction methods. The model includes a simplified sub-mechanism with 16 species and 58 reactions and a semi-detailed core mechanism with 56 species and 390 reactions. Two key parameters including ignition delay time and laminar flame speed are simulated by the use of ANSYS Chemkin-Pro. The simulation results for these parameters are validated against the available data in the literature, and the results show a good agreement compared to the experimental data over a wide range of conditions covering low to high temperatures at different pressures and equivalence ratios.

A misfire-integrated Gaussian process (MInt-GP) emulator for energy-assisted compression ignition (EACI) engines with varying cetane number jet fuels

For energy-assisted compression ignition (EACI) engine propulsion at high-altitude operating conditions using sustainable jet fuels with varying cetane numbers, it is essential to develop an efficient engine control system for robust and optimal operation. Control systems are typically trained using experimental data, which can be costly and time consuming to generate due to setup time of experiments, unforeseen delays/issues with manufacturing, mishaps/engine failures and the consequent repairs (which can take weeks), and errors in measurements. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations can overcome such burdens by complementing experiments with simulated data for control system training. Such simulations, however, can be computationally expensive. Existing data-driven machine learning (ML) models have shown promise for emulating the expensive CFD simulator, but encounter key limitations here due to the expensive nature of the training data and the range of differing combustion behaviors (e.g. misfires and partial/delayed ignition) observed at such broad operating conditions. We thus develop a novel physics-integrated emulator, called the Misfire-Integrated GP (MInt-GP), which integrates important auxiliary information on engine misfires within a Gaussian process surrogate model. With limited CFD training data, we show the MInt-GP model can yield reliable predictions of in-cylinder pressure evolution profiles and subsequent heat release profiles and engine CA50 predictions at a broad range of input conditions. We further demonstrate much better prediction capabilities of the MInt-GP at different combustion behaviors compared to existing data-driven ML models such as kriging and neural networks, while also observing up to 80 times computational speed-up over CFD, thus establishing its effectiveness as a tool to assist CFD for fast data generation in control system training.

Sustainable synthesis of bio-diesel and jet-fuel range hydrocarbons from poisonous Abrus Precatorius seed oil over MoO3-HPW/Ga-KIT-6

Energy problems and environmental deterioration can be combated by renewable biodiesel production from poisonous, waste, and non-edible oil seeds. Molybdenum oxide and phosphotungstic acid were impregnated into gallium-incorporated KIT-6 mesoporous silica employing a hydrothermal technique, to construct MoO3-HPW/Ga-KIT-6 catalyst. Abrus precatorius (Rosary Pea) seeds were utilized to extract non-edible oil, which was then submitted to a catalytic reaction with freshly prepared MoO3-HPW/Ga-KIT-6 for the synthesis of eco-friendly bio-diesel. An optimal biodiesel yield of 100% was reached from Abrus precatorius oil using MoO3(5)-HPW(10)/Ga (20)-KIT-6 catalyst at 6:1 methanol to oil molar ratio, 100 °C and 3 h reaction time. Oleic, linolenic, eicosapentaenoic, arachidic, and behenic acids were esterified under ideal conditions, and the 1H NMR spectroscopy revealed the result was an isolated methyl ester. Additionally, MoO3(5)-HPW(10)/Ga(20)-KIT-6 catalyst have been effectively produced C16–C18 range jet fuels from Abrus precatorius seed oil (APSO) and Abrus oil methyl ester (AOME) through the hydrodeoxygenation route at 400 °C, WHSV 2.7 h−1, 40 bar H2 pressure (62% of C18H38) and 400 °C, WHSV 1.8 h−1, 30 bar H2 pressure (67% of C18H38) respectively. The high dispersion of molybdenum and HPW on the Ga/KIT-6 catalyst and the more acidic centers, which promote the selectivity of the biodiesel and jet-fuel range hydrocarbons (JFRH), are credited with the good catalytic performance; this was demonstrated by HR-TEM and NH3-TPD (341 μmol/g) analyses.

Palladium on carbon-catalysed carbon-carbon coupling reactions of cyclohexanone (KA oil) and alkyl alcohols for the synthesis of zero net emission jet fuels

The cyclohexanone / cyclohexanol mixture (KA oil) is one of the most produced C6 chemicals worldwide, derived from renewable sources if desired; however, the use of KA oil as a precursor for zero net emission fuels has not been studied in-depth yet, as far as we know. We show here that KA oil is converted to an aromatic-free product mixture compatible with the composition of jet fuels after a series of carbon-carbon coupling reactions, of either KA oil with itself or with bioderived alcohols, in the presence of a commercially available solid-supported palladium on carbon catalyst under basic conditions (KOH). Water is the only by-product of the reaction, and phosphines can be used as ligands to variate the final product composition.

Fuels and additives to them

Information about fuels is given, which are subdivided according to the area of application into automobile and aviation gasolines, tractor kerosenes, diesel and jet fuels. To improve the quality of fuel, it is advisable to use various additives: dispersant, anti-corrosion, anti-oxidation, flame retardant and anti-smoke additives. In recent years, developed countries have been using biofuels. It is shown that when using biofuels, compared to oil-based fuels, greenhouse gas emissions are reduced by 60–95 %. Research and development work related to biofuels is also underway at the Institute of Chemistry of Additives after acad. A.M. Guliyev.