Pomacea Canaliculata Research Articles

Addition of organic amendments derived from invasive apple snails alleviated soil acidification, improved soil nitrogen and phosphorus effectiveness, microbial growth and maize yield in South China

Pomacea canaliculata (apple snail) is an invasive agricultural pest posing serious threats to aquatic crop production and wetland ecosystem function in Asia. The shell of P. canaliculata is composed of calcium carbonate (CaCO3), while its soft tissue is protein-rich (carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) sources). Thus, P. canaliculata has the potential to be used as a source of organic soil amendments. Here, we evaluated the effectiveness of snail derivatives (powder, including shells and soft tissues of the snails) as organic soil amendments to improve the productivity of an acidic dryland soil in South China. Snail powder (SP) was incorporated into the soil at application rates of 0–50 g kg−1, followed by planting of maize. Our results showed that SP addition significantly increased soil pH (up to 7.25–7.95), alleviated soil acidification. Moreover, SP addition improved soil N, phosphorus (P) effectiveness, and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) content, increasing biomass of actinobacteria and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) to stimulate microbial growth. Notably, SP addition increased height (up to 42.4 %), biomass (up to 117.6 %) and yield (up to 118.9 %) of maize, with 10 g kg−1 SP optimal for plant productivity. However, the optimal application rate and buffer time for field application of SP warrant further study. Our findings demonstrate the potential of SP resource utilization for acidic soil remediation and the invasive snail P. canaliculata control.

Pengaruh Kombinasi Beberapa Media Tanam Terhadap Pertumbuhan dan Hasil Tanaman Pakcoy Pada Sistem Vertikultur

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is a rice-producing plant that is one of the staple foods for the world's population, especially Indonesia. One of the factors causing a decrease in rice production is pests, the main pest of rice plants is the golden snail. The golden snail pest attack occurs on rice plant seedlings, namely in the vegetative phase. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of giving plant-based pesticides tuba root extract (Derris elliptica) on the mortality and pest intensity of the golden snail (Pomacea canaliculata L.) on rice plants (Oryza sativa L.) Inpari 32 variety. The method used was experimental ( trial) using a single factor Randomized Block Design (RBD) with 6 treatments with 5 replications so there were 30 experimental units. Treatment of D. elliptica tuba root extract concentration on rice (Oryza sativa L.) treatment A (Control), B (5g/L), C (7g/L), D (9g/L), E ( 11g/L), and F (13g/L). Tuba root extract at a concentration of 13 g/L is the best concentration which gives the highest mortality of 81.60% with the lowest attack intensity value of 29.84%. The LC50 value of the tuba root extract on the golden snail was 2.64g/L, the minimum value was 0.37g/L and the maximum was 4.164g/L. LT50 takes a minimum of 1 day and a maximum of 9 days with an average time of 6-5 days. The results of calculating the correlation between mortality and the intensity of golden snail attacks on tall rice plants are -0.60. Administration of tuba root extract of D. eliptica was effective against the mortality of the golden snail P. canaliculata and the intensity of the attack by the golden snail P. canaliculata on rice (Oryza sativa L.).

The Application of Neoprene Diving Boots in Reduction of Feet Injuries in the Sowing Process Among the Rice Farmers in Thailand

ABSTRACT Foot injuries have been a problem among Thai farmers for a long time. The sowing process is one of the high-risk processes because farmers have to walk in the field to spray rice seed without footwear. Literature review showed that cuts from stepping on sharp material or snail shells were major sources of injury. Traditional footwear such as Ninja shoes or cloth socks have raised the questions regarding their ability in protection from such injuries. This study investigates using Neoprene diving boots to protect from foot injuries during the rice sowing process. The sample from this study were farmers from Sena District, Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya Province, Thailand. 29 farmer wearing Neoprene diving boots, 7 farmers wearing traditional Ninja shoes, and 19 farmers wearing cloth socks were asked to work in the sowing process and interviewed about any foot injuries that may have occurred. The statistical test showed there were no significant differences in characteristics among each group of farmers, except for work experience. The results show that there were no foot injuries in farmers wearing Neoprene diving boots, whereas 73% of farmers wearing Ninja shoes, and 14% of farmers wearing cloth socks still had foot injuries. Most injuries were alaceration that were caused by the golden apple snail. The satisfaction survey showed that farmers were satisfied and strongly satisfied with all of the aesthetics, utilization, and functionality factors. This study suggested that the Neoprene diving boots can be recommended for farmers to use as safeguarding against foot injuries in the rice sowing process.

Shell size distributions, land use, and water quality relationships of a freshwater apple snail Pomacea canaliculata (Lamarck, 1822) in Maninjau Lake, West Sumatra, Indonesia

Abstract. Takarina ND, Soeprobowati TR, Komala PS, Subehi L, Wojewódka-Przyby? M, Nurdin D. 2023. Shell size distributions, land use, and water quality relationships of a freshwater apple snail Pomacea canaliculata (Lamarck, 1822) in Maninjau Lake, West Sumatra, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 24: 5478-5484. The freshwater apple snail, Pomacea canaliculata (Lamarck, 1822), is a common mollusk in lake ecosystems, including Maninjau Lake, West Sumatra. Despite its presence in Maninjau Lake, the information about its shell size, land use, and water quality variable relationships is very limited. This paper aims to study how the land use surrounding the lake and water quality variables can affect the shell size distributions of P. canaliculata. The samples were collected from several locations representing the varieties of land uses, including settlements, paddy fields, forest covers, and river mouths, along with water quality variables. Statistical analysis was done using ANOVA and validated by Tukey's post hoc test to analyze differences among locations. Pearson’s correlation test was used to analyze the relationship between shell size and water quality variables. The results show that the differences in land use and water quality variables affected the variations of shell length (P < 0.05, F = 4.925) and width (P< 0.05, F = 12.369) of P. canaliculata. The average shell length was 2.709 cm and 2.022 cm for the width. The large shell size was observed in settlement land uses (P< 0.05), and the small shell was observed in forest and paddy field land uses (P< 0.05). The water near settlement land uses was characterized by high temperatures, while colder water was observed in forest and paddy field land uses. Pearson’s test confirms that increases in shell length and width were correlated with increases in temperature and dissolved oxygen.

ADSORPTION OF HEAVY METALS USING BIO-CALCIUM CARBONATE DERIVED FROM A GOLDEN APPLE SNAIL (GAS) SHELL

In this research studied the use of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) from golden apple snail (GAS) shells for application as an absorbent material to remove heavy metals in water sources, which replaces commercial calcium carbonate (CaCO3) to reduce production costs and increase waste value. The adsorption of heavy metal contents (such as lead; Pb and Cadmium; Cd), phase formation, and physical characterization of golden apple snail shells were investigated for use as a calcium source in the production of naturally based biomaterials. The samples were calcined between 700°C and 950°C for 5 hr. TG and DTA analysis of samples demonstrated the decomposition of CaCO3 to CaO. The XRD results demonstrated that natural shell powder has a crystal phase of CaCO3 with an aragonite structure. Furthermore, the CaCO3 (calcite phase) was transformed into calcium oxide (CaO) as a component, which showed that the phase transformation depended on the calcination temperature. The adsorption experiments showed good performance at about 99.6%, 99.7%, and 97% removal efficiency in a shorter time for calcined GAS at 700, 800, and 900°C, respectively. This study suggests that the golden apple snail shell could be an effective biomaterial for heavy removal from contaminated water.

Ca2+ addition facilitates the shell repair with eggs production of Pomacea canaliculata through biomineralization and food intaking regulation

Pomacea canaliculata was by far one of the most harmful invasive organisms in the world, causing serious harm to aquatic crops and ecosystem. Calcium carbonate is a common component of aquatic environment, which is important for the growth of Pomacea canaliculata. Therefore, the objective of this study was to investigate the response characteristics of P. canaliculata suffered shell breakage to the addition of calcium carbonate in water environment. In this experiment, we explored the effects of calcium carbonate addition on the P. canaliculata shell repair rate, food intake, egg production, shell strength, and calcium content through breaking the snails shell and the addition of calcium carbonate treatment. The results showed that snail broken-shell repaired mostly within 21 days. The snails experienced a significant increase in shell repair rates during earlier days of the treatment, especially for female snails. Food intake of snails exhibited different patterns when their shells were broken and calcium carbonate was added. Shell breakage treatment combined with calcium carbonate addition significantly increased the diameter of snail eggs compared with the control and the calcium carbonate addition treatment without shell-broken snail group. There was no significant difference in shell strength or calcium content of male snails between the treatments. The study suggests that P. canaliculata exhibits a sex-dependent response pattern when subjected to shell damage and calcium carbonate addition. The findings can provide some references to better understand the invasion mechanism and survival strategy of the P. canaliculata.

Molluscicidal properties of wild sunflower (Tithonia diversifolia) leaf extract fractions against invasive golden apple snail (Pomacea canaliculata)

Molluscicidal properties of wild sunflower (Tithonia diversifolia) leaf extract fractions against invasive golden apple snail (Pomacea canaliculata)

Pathogenesis of an experimental mycobacteriosis in an apple snail.

In this work, we aimed at investigating cell and tissue responses of the apple snail Pomacea canaliculata, following the inoculation of the zoonotic pathogen Mycobacterium marinum. Different doses were tested (10, 20, 65, and 100 M CFU) and the mortality rate was negligible. The histopathogenesis was followed at 4, 9, and 28 days after inoculation. Overt histopathological lesions were consistently observed after the two largest doses only. In the lung, marked hemocyte aggregations, including intravascular nodule formation, were observed within the large blood veins that run along the floor and roof of this organ. Hemocyte aggregations were found occluding many of the radial sinuses supplying the respiratory lamina. Acid-fast bacilli were contained in the different hemocyte aggregations. In addition, hemocytes were observed infiltrating the storage tissue, which makes up most of the lung wall, and the connective tissue of the mantle edge. Additionally, signs of degradation in the storage tissue were observed in the lung wall on day 28. In the kidney, nodules were formed associated with the constitutive hemocyte islets and with the subpallial hemocoelic space, in whose hemocytes the acid-fast structures were found. Electron microscopy analysis revealed the presence of bacteria-containing phagosomes within hemocytes located in the surface zone of the islets. Additionally, electron-dense spheroidal structures, which are likely remnants of digested mycobacteria, were observed in close proximity to the hemocytes' nuclei. The size attained by the hemocyte nodules varied during the observation period, but there was no clear dependence on dose or time after inoculation. Nodules were also formed subpallially. Some of these nodules showed 2-3 layers with different cellular composition, suggesting they may also form through successive waves of circulating cells reaching them. Nodular cores, including those formed intravascularly in the lung, would exhibit signs of hemocyte dedifferentiation, possibly proliferation, and death. Hemocyte congestion was observed in the hemocoelic spaces surrounding the pallial ends of the renal crypts, and the renal crypts themselves showed de-epithelization, particularly on day 28. The diverse cellular responses of P. canaliculata to M. marinum inoculation and the high resilience of this snail to the pathogen make it a suitable species for studying mycobacterial infections and their effects on cellular and physiological processes.

Comparative Study of Starch-Based Bioplastic from Banana (Musa acuminata) peel (SBB) Incorporated with Commercialized and Extracted Chitin

Abstract: The study produced extracted Chitin from Asian Green Mussel (Perna viridis) and Golden Apple Snail (Pomacea canaliculate) shells using two-way chemical extraction process; deproteinization and demineralization. The extracted and commercialized Chitin were characterized through Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy to determine and compare the functional groups present. Starch-based bioplastics were produced using banana peel starch (BPS) incorporated with commercialized chitin and chosen chitin extract which is from AGM. The bioplastics were tested for its morphology through Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), physical property through air test, chemical properties through biodegradability test, chemical reactivity test, water vapor transmission rate (WVTR) test, water absorption test and flammability test, and mechanical property through tensile strength test. Four treatments were carried out using 1%, 2%, 3%, and 4% by weight chitin addition. The control SBB does not contain any chitin. All treatments were prepared using constant amount of BPS, PVA solution and glycerol. Based from the results, chitin addition improves the strong acid resistance, water-barrier properties, and tensile strength of the SBB. It was found out that the best treatment was T3 of AGM which has a WVTR of 73.9868 g/m2 , dissolved in water in an average of 6.1783 days, and has a tensile strength of 64286.3777 Pa

Vitamin C Enrichment in the Gold Snail (Pomacea canaliculata) Silage: Effects on Biomass and Reproduction Artemia sp. Labolatory Scale

Giving vitamin C to feed is very necessary considering that vitamin C is a multivitamin needed by the body. The purpose of this study was to determine the proper dose of vitamin C in the golden snail silage feed in increasing the biomass and reproduction of Artemia sp. The research was conducted at the Laboratory of Water Quality and Aquatic Biology, Department of Fisheries and Maritime Affairs, Faculty of Animal Husbandry and Fisheries, Tadulako University. The variables observed were population density, egg/cyst production, hatching rate, survival rate (SR), water quality. The study used a completely randomized design (CRD) with 5 treatments and 4 replications with 20 experimental units A: control , B: vitamin C 12 mg/L, C: vitamin C 18 mg/L, D: vitamin C 24 mg/L, E: vitamin C 30 mg/L. The results showed that vitamin C enrichment with a concentration of 24 mg/L had a very significant effect (p<0.05) on each variable. Improper concentration of vitamin C in feed enrichment can affect the survival of Artemia sp.

Constitutive Expression of Cyclotide kalata B1 Gene in Transgenic Rice Conferring Resistance to Golden Apple Snail (Pomacea canaliculata)

Constitutive Expression of Cyclotide kalata B1 Gene in Transgenic Rice Conferring Resistance to Golden Apple Snail (Pomacea canaliculata)

Environmental Correlates to Genetic Diversity and Structure in Invasive Apple Snail (Pomacea canaliculata) Populations in China

Invasive species are one of the most serious threats to biodiversity. Pomacea canaliculata is considered one of the world’s 100 worst invasive species. Major determinants of invasive species distribution are their environmental tolerances, and an understanding of correlations between local environmental variables (e.g., pH, concentration of dissolved oxygen) and genetic diversity is necessary to better prevent and manage the spread of invasive species. However, while such studies have demonstrated associations between the distribution and density of P. canaliculata and water quality correlates, the principal mechanisms relating genetic and these environmental correlates have not been fully articulated. Here, the correlation between physicochemical parameters and genetics of P. canaliculata were analyzed. The results showed that P. canaliculata among the six collection locations had robust genetic diversity, significant genetic differentiation, limited gene flow, and stable population dynamics. RDA analysis showed that genetic variation in P. canaliculata was significantly correlated with concentration of dissolved oxygen and pH. These results will provide a basis for effectively preventing and managing the spread of invasive species and identifying which habitats may be more at risk of invasion.

Efficacy of Giant River Prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii in Controlling the Invasive Snail Pomacea canaliculata: Implications for Ecological Farming

The invasive golden apple snail Pomacea canaliculata has a strong reproductive capacity and has rapidly spread in Asian countries. Current control methods include physical, chemical, and biological approaches, but there has been limited research on the control of P. canaliculata in its different life stages. This study assessed the effectiveness of using giant river prawns Macrobrachium rosenbergii in controlling juveniles of P. canaliculata through a controlled indoor experiment. The density, size, and dispersal range of recently hatched juvenile snails were significantly lower among those kept with prawns than those kept without prawns, indicating a control effect of M. rosenbergii at least on P. canaliculata juveniles. Furthermore, the study speculates on the potential application of M. rosenbergii in the context of a rice–prawn symbiotic system of ecological farming to control invasive P. canaliculata. In terms of effectiveness and safety, its application might lead to a win-win situation for both rice-farm profits and the ecological benefits of invasive species control.

Enhancing the Anti-Fouling Property of Polyethersulfone-based Membrane using Chitosan Additive from Golden Snail (Pomacea canaliculata) Shell Waste for Water Purification

One of the common techniques for treating water and water from waste effluent is membrane filtration. Polymer is the main material that is most extensively employed as a substance for membranes. Because of its outstanding strength and resistance to chemicals, Polyethersulfone, also known as PES, is a common polymer used in the production of membranes. Unfortunately, its hydrophobicity makes it easy to foul when applied to water treatment processes. This study introduced a chitosan additive isolated from golden snail shell waste as an additive for PES-based membrane fabrication via blending at 0 wt%, 1 wt%, 3 wt%, 5 wt%, and 7 wt%. After preparation, the resultant membranes were analyzed and tested for their ability to filter a humic acid solution at a concentration of 50 mg L-1. According to the findings, the chitosan additive has the potential to change the characteristics of the membrane as well as its filtration performance. It increased the pure water flux from 110 181 L m-2 h-1 (no chitosan loading) to 181 L m-2 h-1 (for five wt% loadings). The membrane characterization results supported this increase in pure water flux, which showed that adding chitosan additives improved the porosity, size of pores, and hydrophilicity. The addition of this additive also has a good effect on the anti-fouling property by increasing the fouling recovery ratio (FRR). The FRRs for the modified membranes were 79% to 82%, which were higher than the neat PES membrane with an FRR of merely 60%.

Pengaruh Akar Tuba (Derris elliptica) Terhadap Mortalitas Dan Intensitas Serangan Keong Mas (Pomacea canaliculata L.) Pada Padi

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is a rice-producing plant that is one of the staple foods for the world's population, especially Indonesia. One of the factors causing a decrease in rice production is pests, the main pest of rice plants is the golden snail. The golden snail pest attack occurs on rice plant seedlings, namely in the vegetative phase. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of giving plant-based pesticides tuba root extract (Derris elliptica) on the mortality and pest intensity of the golden snail (Pomacea canaliculata L.) on rice plants (Oryza sativa L.) Inpari 32 variety. The method used was experimental (trial) using a single factor Randomized Block Design (RBD) with 6 treatments with 5 replications so there were 30 experimental units. Treatment of D. elliptica tuba root extract concentration on rice (Oryza sativa L.) treatment A (Control), B (5g/L), C (7g/L), D (9g/L), E ( 11g/L), and F (13g/L). Tuba root extract at a concentration of 13g/L is the best concentration which gives the highest mortality of 81.60% with the lowest attack intensity value of 29.84%. The LC50 value of the tuba root extract on the golden snail was 2.64g/L, the minimum value was 0.37g/L and the maximum was 4.164 g/L. LT50 takes a minimum of 1 day and a maximum of 9 days with an average time of 6-5 days. The results of calculating the correlation between mortality and the intensity of golden snail attacks on tall rice plants are -0.60. Administration of tuba root extract of D. eliptica was effective against the mortality of the golden snail P. canaliculata and the intensity of the attack by the golden snail P. canaliculata on rice (Oryza sativa L.).

Biological properties of mucus from land snails (Lissachatina fulica) and freshwater snails (Pomacea canaliculata) and histochemical study of mucous cells in their foot.

Mucus derived from many land snails has been extensively utilised in medicine and cosmetics, but some biological activities of the mucus need to be well documented. Nevertheless, most mucus is obtained from land snails, while mucus from freshwater snails has yet to be attended. This study aims to determine and compare mucus's antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities from the land snail Lissachatina fulica and the freshwater snail Pomacea canaliculata. ABTS, DPPH, reducing power and total antioxidant activity assays were used to evaluate the antioxidant capacity. Inhibition of nitric oxide production in lipopolysaccharide-activated RAW 264.7 cells was performed to determine the anti-inflammatory activity. Additionally, the histochemical analysis of mucous cells in each snail foot was conducted to compare the distribution of mucous cells and types of mucins using periodic acid-Schiff and Alcian blue staining. Mucus from L. fulica and P. canaliculata exhibited antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities in different parameters. L. fulica mucus has higher total antioxidant (44.71 ±2.11 mg AAE/g) and nitric oxide inhibitory activities (IC50 = 9.67 ±0.31 µg/ml), whereas P. canaliculata mucus has better-reducing power activity (43.63 ±2.47 mg AAE/g) and protein denaturation inhibition (IC50 = 0.60 ±0.03 mg/ml). Histochemically, both species' dorsal and ventral foot regions contained neutral and acid mucins in different quantities. In the dorsal region, the neutral mucins level in L. fulica (16.64 ±3.46%) was significantly higher than that in P. canaliculata (11.19 ±1.50%), while the acid mucins level showed no significant difference between species. Levels of both mucins in the ventral foot region of L. fulica (15.08 ±3.97% and 10.76 ±3.00%, respectively) were significantly higher than those of P. canaliculata (2.25 ±0.48% and 2.71 ±0.56%, respectively). This study revealed scientific evidence of the biological capacity of mucus from L. fulica and P. canaliculata as well as provided helpful information on the region of the foot which produces effective mucus.

Chinese Spinach (Amaranthus viridis Linn.) as Natural Molluscicide Against the Hatchability of Golden Apple Snail (Pomacea canaliculata Lamarck) Eggs

Chinese Spinach (Amaranthus viridis Linn.) as Natural Molluscicide Against the Hatchability of Golden Apple Snail (Pomacea canaliculata Lamarck) Eggs

Comparison of development and overwintering rates and feeding efficiency on rice seedlings among two invasive freshwater apple snails and their hybrid

Since the 1980s, the freshwater apple snails, Pomacea canaliculata, Pomacea maculata, and their hybrid, have been introduced into a wide range of freshwater ecosystems in tropical to temperate regions. Although P. canaliculata has become established in temperate East Asia, P. maculata and the hybrid are rarely found in this region. To evaluate the risk of P. maculata and the hybrid particularly as rice pests in temperate regions, we compared growth rate, winter survival rate, and feeding efficiency on rice seedlings of these snails with P. canaliculata. When P. maculata and P. canaliculata hatchlings were reared under laboratory or field conditions, the adult P. maculata had larger shells than adult P. canaliculata. Neither P. maculata nor F1 hybrids could survive winter in a simulated drained paddy field, and only a few individuals of P. maculata and F1 hybrids overwintered successfully in freshwater. Pomacea maculata juveniles fed on rice seedlings at the highest rate at temperatures above 27°C. These results suggest that P. maculata becomes a serious rice pest in temperate region as P. canaliculata once it is introduced from warmer regions under global warming. Further biological examination of P. maculata is needed to evaluate the risk of this snail in detail.

A Review of the Potential of Golden Apple Snail (Pomacea Canaliculata) as a Raw Material for Aquaculture Feed

This review offers a overview of the golden apple snail (Pomacea canaliculata) as a potential raw material for aquaculture feed. The taxonomy, anatomy, habitat, life cycle, nutritional composition, and utilization prospects of this freshwater snail species are discussed. The golden apple snail's features, including its conical shell, distinct coloration, and unique respiratory system comprising gills and a lung, contribute to its adaptability and mobility in diverse environments. Its life cycle encompasses egg deposition, hatching, and subsequent growth stages, with reproductive maturity and lifespan influenced by environmental factors. With its significant calcium content and variable protein levels, the golden apple snail holds nutritional value. Consequently, it has gained attention as a promising ingredient for aquaculture feed due to its protein-rich meat

Assessment of the socio-economic impacts associated with the arrival of apple snail (Pomacea canaliculata) in Mwea irrigation scheme, Kenya.

In Kenya, rice (Oryza sativa L.) is mainly produced under irrigation by small-scale farmers. Mwea irrigation scheme (MIS) in Kirinyaga County accounts for 80-88% of rice production. Here, rice is the main source of livelihood and a source of revenue generation for the county. However, a recently established invasive freshwater snail, Pomacea canaliculata (Lamarck) (family: Ampullariidae), a species of apple snail, presents a serious threat to rice production. Household surveys, focus group discussions and key informant interviews highlight apple snail as a serious problem in MIS. Households that observed at least a moderate level of infestation (>20% of cultivated area) experienced significant reductions in rice yield (~14%) and net rice income (~60%). Farmers reported increased use of chemical pesticides for management of apple snail. In addition, the cost of hired labor for physical removal of egg masses and snails is resulting in substantial negative effects on net income. Farmer age, area of land owned, responsibility for decision-making, receipt of extension advice, training, and membership of a farmer organization, were all statistically significant variables to explain farmers awareness of the need for area-wide apple snail management. Strategies to limit the spread of apple snail are urgently needed. A Multi-Institutional Technical Team (MITT) has been established to spearhead management efforts and consolidate advice to farmers on how to manage apple snail. However, without action to mitigate spread, the consequences could be disastrous for rice production and food security in Kenya, and for other rice growing regions across Africa. © 2023 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.