Iranian Farmers Research Articles

Farmers’ participatory-based water conservation behaviors: evidence from Iran

In recent years, Iran has been increasingly faced with severe water scarcity. In this regard, participation of farmers in water conservation activities is proposed as one of the major solutions to this problem. Despite extensive efforts to encourage water conservation activities among Iranian farmers, there are still no thorough knowledge and understanding of the determinants of their participatory-based water conservation behaviors (PBWCB). Accordingly, the present study makes an attempt to develop an appropriate theoretical framework using the norm activation theory (NAT) to analyze farmers’ PBWCB. For this purpose, a sample of 378 Iranian farmers is selected using stratified random sampling method. The results show that the variable of personal norms (as the main predictor of behavior in NAT) could predict a significant percentage (55.7%) of the variance in PBWCB. In addition, other variables, including ascription of responsibility, subjective norms, perceived ability, and awareness of consequences, explained 47.8% of its variance as the main determinants of personal moral/norms. Analysis of the total effects of three water conservation values (egoistic, altruistic, and biospheric values) also revealed that farmers’ PBWCBs are mostly affected by their underlying values. A number of practical recommendations were finally presented to facilitate the implications of the study results for water resource managers, policy-makers, and executives in relevant organizations.

Sociological factors influencing the performance of organic activities in Iran

The conventional production model based on extensive use of chemical inputs such as pesticides is increasingly challenged. Organic agriculture is considered as one of the most important alternative agricultural systems to produce healthy food without any chemicals. Current models are not suitable for prediction of environmental behaviors. The current study aims to analyze the diffusion of organic agriculture to produce healthy food with the environmental sociology approach among farmers. The study was conducted using the survey research and multi-stage random sampling in Fars province, in the south of Iran. The samples included 215 farmers. The reliability of the questionnaire was confirmed by conducting a pilot study out of the main sample. The results showed that the farmers have strong attitude to the environment and are for the most part, highly intentioned to perform organic activities. Based on the results, the farmers’ intention toward adoption of organic agriculture, environmental identity, and responsibility of pro-environmental behavior, and their moral norms play an important role to accept organic agricultural activities. There are also some effective factors in implementation of organic agriculture including farmers` increasing awareness about the principles of organic farming, controllability of environmental behaviors as well as their accessibility to the resources and facilities for organic farming. The study emphasized that the attitude and enhancing the knowledge do not lead to pro-environmental behaviors and organic activities directly. Using the models and environmental sociology theories is more efficient to explain pro-environmental behaviors. To this aim, some suggestions were presented to increase the adoption of organic activities and persuade the Iranian farmers to select this kind of cultivation.

Application of the extended theory of planned behavior to predict Iranian farmers’ intention for safe use of chemical fertilizers

In recent years, due to the excessive consumption of chemical fertilizers in Iran, the environment and human health have been in serious danger. Therefore, the main idea of this study is to find determining factors in the safe use of chemical fertilizers. An extended theory of planned behavior (TPB) by adding risk perception (RP) and moral norm (MN) has been utilized as a study’s theoretical framework. The research was conducted using questionnaire survey method and by the help of structural equation modeling (SEM). The statistical population of the research was all wheat farmers in Khuzestan province (located in southwest of Iran). Using Krejcie and Morgan table, the sample size was estimated 410 individuals. In this study, the sampling method was multistage stratified clustered. The results of Extended TPB variables among respondents showed that only two variables of attitude and MN are in proper status. The results indicated that the original TPB explains 0.69% of the variance of farmers’ behavioral intention in the safely use of chemical fertilizers. The three main structures of the original TPB included attitude, perceived behavioral control (PBC), and subjective norms (SN), all of which had positive impacts on farmers’ intention. Most importantly, the extended TPB by adding RP and MN increases the model’s ability to explain farmers’ safe behavioral intention by 11.2%. In this study, the most important variables in initial TPB included attitude and subjective norms, but in the extended TPB, moral norm and risk perception were the most important. Therefore, policymakers by emphasizing these variables can promote safe behaviors in using chemical fertilizers.

Wrong Turn; Agricultural Policy in Iran

Food security is a global concern. Iranian farmers have the obligation to provide food but they don’t have the right to food. International restrictions combined with incorrect national schematization put them in a situation that they can’t afford to buy their own products just to endure to the next harvest season. With socioeconomic analysis of legal instruments, this article aims: to unveil misguided policies and their effects on agricultural activities in Iran and to provide a customized solution based on the idea of family farming.

Understanding farmers’ ecological conservation behavior regarding the use of integrated pest management- an application of the technology acceptance model

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is considered as an ecological conservation technology for crop pests’ management; however, the technology adoption is intensely affected by surrounding socio-psychological environment, which is poorly studied, particularly in developing nations. The present study therefore aimed at addressing this gap through application of an extended form of Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) in order to examine the determinants of Iranian farmers’ ecological conservation behavior regarding the use of IPM practices. This research was a descriptive, causal, and correlational study conducted through a cross-sectional survey of 327 tomato growers in Zanjan Province of Iran. The results disclosed that the growers utilize various IPM practices (cultural, mechanical, chemical, and biological); nevertheless, the majority of growers were grouped in relatively low or low level of IPM practices’ usage. The key propositions of the original TAM, i.e., attitude, perceived usefulness, and perceived ease of use, explained 41.3% of the variance in the farmers’ ecological conservation behavior regarding IPM practices’ application. Moreover, the extended TAM was appropriate for the prediction of effective factors of farmers’ ecological conservation behavior concerning the use of IPM practices. Also, adding the four constructs of social influence, result demonstrability, compatibility, and self-efficacy, significantly enhanced the stability and explanatory power of the original TAM (from 41.3% to 46.4%). In the extended TAM, result demonstrability (β = 0.182) and compatibility (β = 0.360) had significant positive impacts on perceived usefulness; while, self-efficacy had a meaningful positive effect on perceived ease of use (β = 0.776), and had not any impact on perceived usefulness (β = 0.114). The findings of this study expanded the current body of knowledge on technology acceptance via the investigation of TAM in a novel ecological conservation technology field (i.e., the IPM technology) and provided a roadmap for better understanding of decisive factors affecting farmers’ ecological conservation behavior as well as post-implementation interventions aiming at IPM technology promotion in developing countries.

Environmental support and entrepreneurial behavior among Iranian farmers: The mediating roles of social and human capital

ABSTRACT Though the entrepreneurship literature has mostly focused on the antecedents of entrepreneurial intentions, little work has attempted to examine the factors that shape entrepreneurial behavior among practicing entrepreneurs. In order to fill this gap, this study examined the effect of environmental support on farmers’ entrepreneurial behavior and innovation, taking into consideration the mediating role of human and social capital. The sample consisted of 400 farmers from Iran’s Kermanshah province, selected through a multi-stage sampling method. Results indicate that human capital and social capital have a direct, positive, and significant effect on entrepreneurial behavior. Though no direct effect of environmental support on entrepreneurial behavior was found, results show that environmental support has an indirect, positive, and significant effect through the mediating role of human and social capital. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed to assist researchers, policy makers, planners, and business owners.

Development of Psychometric Properties of Farmers’ Occupational Health Behavior Questionnaire for Iranian Farmers

ABSTRACT Background: Agriculture is one of the most dangerous industries throughout the world, and its risk level is dictated by several determinants whose real weights are often unknown. Objective: The present work aims to develop psychometric properties of farmers’ occupational health behavior questionnaire for Iranian farmers. Methods: In this qualitative-quantitative study, the items of the instrument were derived from the qualitative phase. Face validity, content validity, reliability, and consistency methods were applied. Construct validity was estimated by the exploratory factor analysis. Results: Eleven factors with factor loads of >0.501 were extracted as the main factors. They altogether captured about 58.97% of the variance of factors affecting farmers’ occupational health behavior. The reliability of the instrument was confirmed as its Cronbach’s alpha was in the range of 0.72–0.93. Conclusion: Given the complicated nature of occupational health behaviors among farmers, it is imperative to measure the factors influencing these behaviors precisely. Therefore, the development of a proper instrument can be very crucial in identifying influential factors. The findings showed that the developed instrument was optimally reliable and valid.

Understanding smallholder farmers’ adaptation behaviors through climate change beliefs, risk perception, trust, and psychological distance: Evidence from wheat growers in Iran

Climate change (CC) poses severe threats to the agriculture sector in developing countries. ‏Increasing empirical evidence has confirmed that adaptation strategies to CC at the farm level can significantly reduce the negative impacts of CC and minimize vulnerability. Consequently, understanding adaptation to CC has become a major concern for farmers to facilitate adaptation actions and assist them in improving their adaptive capacity. In this context, this study investigated the most prominent psychological drivers of, and impediments to, adaptation responses. To this end, 350 farmers from Kermanshah district in western of Iran were selected as our sample through a multi-stage, stratified, random sampling method. Structural equation modeling found a complex relationship between overall CC belief, risk perception, psychological distance, trust and risk salience, and farmers' adaptation behaviors. Climate risk perception, trust, and psychological distance were much more effective in driving farmers’ adaptation behaviors. The findings yield recommendations for public policy and risk communication that could encourage adaptation behaviors among Iranian farmers.

An Ancient Harappan Genome Lacks Ancestry from Steppe Pastoralists or Iranian Farmers.

We report an ancient genome from the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC). The individual we sequenced fits as a mixture of people related to ancient Iranians (the largest component) and Southeast Asian hunter-gatherers, a unique profile that matches ancient DNA from 11 genetic outliers from sites in Iran and Turkmenistan in cultural communication with the IVC. These individualshad little if any Steppe pastoralist-derived ancestry, showing that it was not ubiquitous in northwest South Asia during the IVC as it is today. The Iranian-related ancestry in the IVC derives from a lineage leading to early Iranian farmers, herders, and hunter-gatherers before their ancestors separated, contradicting the hypothesis that the shared ancestry between early Iranians and South Asians reflects a large-scale spread of western Iranian farmers east. Instead, sampled ancient genomes from the Iranian plateau and IVC descend from different groups of hunter-gatherers who began farming without being connected by substantial movement of people.

Pesticide exposure reduction: Extending the theory of planned behavior to understand Iranian farmers’ intention to apply personal protective equipment

It is undeniable that there is a challenge of extensive and indiscriminate application of chemical pesticides and their adverse impacts on human health and environment. This fact accentuates major role of using personal protective equipment (PPE) as an essential component of safety behavior in reducing these impacts. Nevertheless, there is a lack of knowledge concerning drivers of farmers’ behavior in using PPE during handling pesticides; particularly, in developing nations such as Iran. Hence, this research focused on narrowing the gap by application of the theory of planned behavior (TPB) of healthy extension including additional constructs of perceived susceptibility and severity in order to investigate the factors affecting Iranian farmers’ intention in using PPE. The theory was empirically tested using a cross-sectional survey. The data was collected from 322 wheat farmers in Zanjan County, Northwest Iran. Empirical findings of a structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis showed that primary TPB adequately fitted the data and explained 43% of intention variance of using PPE. Three primary TPB constructs were as following: attitude, perceived behavioral control (PBC), and subjective norms (SN); in which they all had positive impacts on intention. Most importantly, the results confirmed that extended TPB had the efficiency to determine drivers of farmers’ intention in using PPE in which the inclusion of perceived susceptibility and perceived severity increased the explanatory ability of the model up to 10.6%. The findings of present study underlined the importance of the role of risk perceptions’ constructs (i.e., perceived susceptibility and perceived severity) as antecedents of farmers’ PPE behavior. These findings would be helpful for program planners and strategists to design and implement effective interventions through farmers’ safety behavior plans respecting pesticides application particularly in developing countries.

Modeling farmers' responsible environmental attitude and behaviour: a case from Iran.

There is an increasing concern over the environmental degradation caused by agricultural activities especially in developing countries which mostly linked to farmer's behavior. Thus, this study aimed to model the responsible attitude and behavior of Iranian farmers in respect to environment. The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) was used as a basis for identification of the main determinants of the farmers' responsible environmental behavior. A survey of 400 farmers in the Hamedan Province, selected through a multistage stratified random sampling method. Data was gathered using a questionnaire which its validity and reliability were confirmed by a panel of agricultural and environmental experts and calculated Cronbach's alpha (0.65 ≤ α ≤ 0.80), respectively. Data were analyzed using structural equation modeling (SEM) to evaluate the strength of relationship between the constructs and test the overall model fit. Results of study showed that "using animal manure in the farms" was the most important behavior which farmers are responsibly doing to respect their environment but their least attention is given to "disposing cans and bottles after spraying." Also, the fitness indices of the model revealed that the TPB partially supported the farmers' responsible environmental behavior as perceived behavioral control and environmental attitude positively influenced the farmers' responsible environmental behavior but there was not observed any significant influence by subjective norm. Among the additional incorporated constructs, environmental awareness, ethical commitment, and environmental concern significantly had a positive influence on farmers' behavior by mediating role of the environmental attitude. The inclusion of new constructs in the TPB model was supported through improving the predictive power of the modified model in predicting farmers' responsible environmental behavior.

What influences farmers' intentions to conserve on-farm biodiversity? An application of the theory of planned behavior in fars province, Iran

Earth's well-being depends mainly on the conservation of ecosystem goods and services. However, biodiversity is extensively threatened in agricultural landscapes. Since farmers' decisions and practices are the main determinant factors of on-farm biodiversity conservation, this study was conducted to clarify the underlying constructs of farmers' intention to preserve biodiversity. The Theory of Planned Behavior was applied to investigate the intention of a sample of 274 Iranian farmers towards on-farm biodiversity conservation. In order to increase the predictive power of this theory, the new constructs of knowledge, moral norm and perceived threats of intensified agriculture were added to the model. The results indicated that farmers have a moderate level of knowledge about the value and strategies of biodiversity conservation. Also, they have a favorable attitude toward preserving biodiversity. However, they do not perceive enough control to engage in biodiversity conservation practices. Furthermore, the findings revealed that attitude, perceived threats of intensified agriculture, knowledge, social norms and moral norms are the most relevant factors explaining the farmers' intentions toward biodiversity conservation. In general, the results presented evidence about effectiveness of the Theory of Planned Behavior and the extended model of planned behavior on assessing the farmers' intention to preserve biodiversity. Also, the findings reinforced the available evidence regarding the significance of moral norm and knowledge in development of environmental intention. Accordingly, a number of considerations about improving farmers' intention to preserve on-farm biodiversity are recommended.

Which Factors Influence Farmers' Use of Protective Measures During Pesticides Exposure?

Farmers in developing countries use harmful pesticides while taking few or no protective measures. There is limited evidence on factors affecting their safety measures. The objective of this study was to identify the underlying factors influencing farmers' protective behaviors (PBs) and use of personal protective equipment (PPE) during the exposure to pesticides. From April to August 2017, a descriptive study was conducted in Twiserkan County in western Iran among 474 farmers from 104 villages. A questionnaire was developed to measure demographic characteristics and factors suggested in integrated agent-centered (IAC) framework. The questionnaire was validated in terms of content validity through expert reviews and tested for reliability in a group of farmers. Data were collected by face-to-face interviews with farmers. Physiological arousal (β = .154, p < .05), intention (β = .345, p < .05), habit (β = .188, p < .05), and contextual factors (β = .101, p < .05) had a significant and positive impact on farmers engaging in pesticide PBs. Among the assessed factors, only physiological arousal (β = .122, p < .05) and habit (β = .646, p < .05) were found to have a significant and positive effect on the use of PPE, but the intention (β = -.039, p > .05) and contextual factors (β = -.009, p > .05) had no significant relation with the use of PPE. The results of this study identified determinants of farmers' safety measures. Our results suggest that the IAC framework could serve as a guide to developing a more effective intervention for safety measures of Iranian farmers.

Response to water crisis: How do Iranian farmers think about and intent in relation to switching from rice to less water-dependent crops?

In response to the severe water crisis in Iran, the Iranian government has changed its approach to the management of the country’s water resources in different sectors from supply-side to demand-side management–an approach that relies on reducing water demand. In this regard, due to the high consumption of water in the agricultural sector, switching from rice cultivation that requires large amounts of water, to less water-intensive crops were considered a priority for the country, and the government banned the cultivation of rice as a water conservation policy. It is however very difficult for a government or any other power to enforce such a measure as it must be voluntarily accepted by end users (i.e., farmers) to be successful. Therefore, the success of this policy largely depends on what the public think of such measures. As such, it is crucial for policymakers to know how farmers think and behave in terms of these policies. The aim of this research is to accrue empirical evidence about farmers’ intention toward changing the rice cropping system. To achieve our goal, we used a social-psychological theory known as the Theory of Interpersonal Behavior. A sample of 250 rice growers in southwest Iran was selected. Structural equation modeling showed that farmers’ intention to change from rice cultivation to another crop is determined by personal norms, beliefs about their role and emotional considerations.

Social-cognitive conceptualization of Iranian farmers’ water conservation behavior

Many environmental dilemmas such as water scarcity originate from human behavior. This study aimed to analyze Iranian farmers’ water conservation behavior using Bandura’s social-cognitive theory. To this end, a cross-sectional survey was conducted to collect the required data. The research instrument was a questionnaire. A sample of 380 farmers was selected using a multistage stratified random sampling method. The results indicated that variables of social-cognitive theory could predict about 73% of farmers’ water conservation behavior variance. Investigation of direct effects of factors on farmers’ water conservation behavior revealed that the major determinants are as follows: intention of water conservation, social-structural factors, perception of others’ behavior, outcome expectancy, self-efficacy, and water conservation co-regulation. Findings showed that factors that have been mentioned in social-cognitive theory could be considered for enhancing farmers’ water conservation behaviors since the theory provides a more realistic insight into farmers’ behaviors with an emphasis on farmers’ social and structural contexts.

Skin Cancer Preventive Behaviors in Iranian Farmers: Applying Protection Motivation Theory

Farmers are among the most common work groups at risk of skin cancer. The protection motivation theory has been widely accepted as a framework for predicting health related behaviors. This study was conducted to determine the role of factors preventing skin cancer among farmers in Eslamabad-e Gharb district, Iran, using the protection motivation theory. In this descriptive study, 280 farmers living in this district were studied from May to June 2017. Using cluster random sampling methods, health houses where farmers received health care were selected. Each farmer within the selected health house was then enrolled into the study using simple random sampling. Data were collected by interview using an author-developed questionnaire. The questionnaire ascertained demographic information and constructs of the protection motivation theory. Almost half of the farmers had a history of sunburn (56.4%). With regard to prevention, a small proportion reported using sunscreen (8.6%), hats (3.2%), gloves 3.9%, sunglasses 4.6%, and protective clothing 15.4%. The results of regression analyses showed that with one unit of increase in the scores of self-efficacy to adopt prevention behavior and perceived protection motivation resulted in an increase in the mean score of the "protective" behavior by 0.26 and 0.20, respectively. Working conditions among farmers place them at great risk and skin cancer prevention is essential. Intervention and prevention programs should fully identify the determinants of skin cancer prevention in farmers; in addition, the identified effective factors must be taken into account when designing and implementing appropriate interventions.

Acute pesticide poisoning and related factors among farmers in rural Western Iran.

Although acute pesticide poisoning (APP) is known to be a major health concern among farmers in developing countries, knowledge of its prevalence and risk factors is limited. The purpose of this study was to investigate the prevalence and a broad range of potential work-related risk factors of APP among Iranian farmers and farm workers. This cross-sectional study was conducted in rural areas of the Twiserkan County in Iran. In this study, there were 474 farmers and farm workers who had used pesticide 1 week before data collection. Participants were selected from 104 villages. Data were gathered using a questionnaire and analyzed using STATA (version 14.2 SE). Binary logistic regression and multinomial logistic regression were employed. The results of this study showed that 286 (60.3%) farmers and farm workers who applied pesticides suffered from work-related APP. Most frequent APP symptoms were runny nose (29.8%) and headache (25.1%). Five risk factors were identified, including annual income ( p < 0.05), number of farming years (odds ratio (OR) = 0.31), number of spraying years (OR = 2.40), place of pesticide storage (OR = 2.69), and type of sprayer ( p < 0.05). The results of this study indicated that APP is prevalent among the studied farmers. Some work-related factors play an important role in APP among Iranian rural farmers. In addition, the magnitude of these risk factors differed significantly by severity of acute and somatic pesticide poisoning.

The role of time perspective in predicting Iranian farmers’ participatory-based water conservation attitude and behavior

ABSTRACTIn current perspective, farmers’ participatory behavior toward conservation of water resources (FPBCWR) is one of the most important strategies under water resource management in rural Iran. In this regard, understanding the predictors of farmers’ participatory-based water conservation behaviors and attitudes is gaining more importance than earlier. Among different dimensions of farmers’ participatory behavior, the potential of temporal frames was examined rarely. Thus, 322 Iranian farmers were investigated to examine the potential of their time perspectives in predicting their participatory-based water conservation behavior and attitude. According to the study results, the effects of present orientation on attitude and behavior were negatively significant, while the effects of future orientation on attitude and behavior were positively significant, whereas its effects (path coefficients) were stronger than present orientation effects. Past orientation did not have a significant effect on attitude, though attitude positively and significantly affected farmers’ participatory behavior. The results of causal analysis revealed that presented model accounted for 58% of variance in farmers’ ‘behavior’ and 42% of variance in “attitude.” In conclusion, a few demonstrable illustrations of policy implications are presented to enable utilizing the important findings and concluding results of this study that is linked further with water resource management domain.

Farmers' adaptation choices to climate change: a case study of wheat growers in Western Iran

AbstractClimate change is expected to disproportionately affect farmers by further exacerbating the risks that they face. These risks have a huge negative impact on their livelihood. However, mounting evidence has revealed that farmers can effectively manage this negative impact by adapting their farming practices to climate change. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the farmers' ongoing adaptation measures, and to identify factors that influence their choice of adaptation methods in wheat production in the Kermanshah district in Western Iran. A sample of 350 farmers living in this region was selected through a multi-stage stratified and random sampling method. Principal component analysis revealed that three components play a role in the farmers' decisions on adaptation methods, namely, farm production practices, farm financial management, and government programs and insurance. The relative influence of the factors listed under each of the three components was assessed using a multiple linear regression analysis. Our analysis showed that these factors accounted for 50%, 25%, and 40% of the adaptation responses analyzed, respectively. In sum, our findings yield recommendations for agriculture extension and risk communication strategies that could promote adaptation behavior among Iranian farmers.

Pesticide handling practices, health risks, and determinants of safety behavior among Iranian apple farmers

ABSTRACTCommon safety practices in pesticide use were assessed among apple farmers in Ardabil Province, Iran. With reference to the place of storing pesticides, most farmers (60%) stated that they store the pesticides in stalls and warehouses, while 8.5% stated that they store the pesticides in their houses. The majority of the farmers (71.5%) stated that they prepare the pesticide sprays in the orchards or next to irrigation wells. Almost one out of three farmers (32.8 %) reported that they dump the empty containers in the orchard fields and almost an equal proportion (30.2%) reported that they usually bury the empty containers. Irritating (burning) eyes and blurred vision were symptoms that the majority of respondents had experienced. Most farmers used trousers, long-sleeved blouses/shirts, and gloves when spraying, but coveralls and goggles were rarely used. Age and farming experience negatively affected PPE use and safety behavior, namely old and experienced farmers did not follow safety rules. On the contrary, education, information about pesticides, and farming as the main profession promoted safety behavior. Overall, significant levels of exposure among farmers can be concluded due to pesticide use. The extension services should aim human safety in relation to pesticide use in agriculture.