Iranian Farmers Research Articles

Effect of essential oil of seven medicinal plants on longevity, nongermination, qualitative and quantitative traits of Solanum tuberosum cv. Agria

There is increasing interest in the application of natural plant extracts for the postharvest management of food crops. This study investigates the potential for hydro-distilled natural essential oils to inhibit the germination of potato tubers in storage. Four completely randomized design experiments were undertaken with extracts of seven medicinal plants [(Zataria multiflora L.), peppermint (Mentha piperita L.), fennel (Foeniculum vulgare L.), summer savory (Satureja hortensis L.), cloves (Eugenia caryophylium L.), lavender (Lavandula officinalis L.), and black cumin (Bunium persicum L.)], at four concentrations (0, 150, 300, and 450 μl/L) and three replications. Tubers were treated with essential oil vapor and then stored for 6 months at 8°C in the dark. Peppermint and fennel essential oils, at a concentration of 300 μl/L, completely inhibited tuber germination. In pregermination experiments, the dimensional and mass weight of tubers before germination increased by 18.4% and 21.11%, respectively, in the control treatment compared with the treated tubers with a concentration of 150 μl/L. However, the highest rate for the mentioned parameters in postgermination experiments was observed at a concentration of 300 μl/L fennel treatments. Peppermint and fennel essential oil with a concentration of 300 μl/L completely inhibited germination and tubers had acceptable volume, mass, dry matter, protein, and potassium. Also, the highest concentration of sugar (44.44 mg/g) occurred in tubers treated with fennel (300 μl/L), but the starch levels were lower than in tubers treated with the other essential oils. From these results, peppermint essential oil was identified as the best treatment and it is recommended for use in commercial harvests. Novelty impact statement Plant essential oils are safe substances for the environment and human health. Therefore, for the first time, these essential oils with different concentrations were evaluated for an Iranian potato cultivar. The innovation of this article was the use of a range of concentrations and diversity of important plant essential oils to provide a novel solution for Iranian farmers in controlling potato germination and storage conditions.

Factors affecting the implementation of soil conservation practices among Iranian farmers

As soil is the basis for agriculture, soil erosion is one of the major threats to food security in arid and semi-arid regions across the world. Therefore, soil conservation is an important step to increase productivity and ensure sustainability in agriculture. To implement soil conservation measures, farmers must voluntarily adopt soil conservation behaviors. Therefore, it may be important to understand the psychological and social factors that influence farmers' environmental sustainability. Thus, in this study, social cognitive theory (SCT) was used as a theoretical framework to investigate the factors influencing Iranian farmers' soil conservation behaviors (SCBs). The results showed that SCT was a successful theory in this area as it could explain 0.662 and 0.537 percent of behavioral intentions (BI) and SCBs, respectively. Moreover, the two components of self-efficacy (SE) and outcome expectancies (OE) were the strongest SCT variables that influenced SCBs. Overall, our results may provide new insights for policymakers in the agricultural sector to reduce soil erosion.

Why Have Economic Incentives Failed to Convince Farmers to Adopt Drip Irrigation in Southwestern Iran?

Sustainable water usage is an important global concern and an urgent priority, especially in dryland regions such as Iran. The Iranian government is actively addressing the challenge of water scarcity by encouraging farmers to adopt new water application technology. Its main element to decrease water consumption is to encourage new irrigation systems, in particular drip irrigation. However, despite the benefits of drip irrigation technologies and the availability of generous government subsidies, adoption rates of the improved irrigation technology remain critically low among Iranian farmers. Therefore, this study seeks to determine what is limiting the uptake of improved irrigation technology in Iran. While it is well known that acceptance of new technology ultimately depends on multiple and interrelated factors, we examine those factors affecting farmers’ adoption from three theoretical perspectives in the adoption literature: farmers’ socio-economic characteristics, social capital, and technology characteristics. A cross-sectional survey was undertaken in Behbahan district in Khuzestan province in southwest Iran. The sample comprises 174 farmers who adopted drip irrigation in that region and 100 non-adopters who were located in the same region. Discriminant analysis reveals that a socio-economic approach is the strongest model to predict adoption of drip irrigation technology in the study area, followed by models of technical characteristics, and social capital. These results can help agricultural extension agents and policy-makers design appropriate and effective strategies that facilitate the adoption of drip irrigation at an increasing rate.

Genomic Insights Into the Genetic Structure and Natural Selection of Mongolians.

Mongolians dwell at the Eastern Eurasian Steppe, where is the agriculture and pasture interlaced area, practice pastoral subsistence strategies for generations, and have their own complex genetic formation history. There is evidence that the eastward expansion of Western Steppe herders transformed the lifestyle of post-Bronze Age Mongolia Plateau populations and brought gene flow into the gene pool of Eastern Eurasians. Here, we reported genome-wide data for 42 individuals from the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of North China. We observed that our studied Mongolians were structured into three distinct genetic clusters possessing different genetic affinity with previous studied Inner Mongolians and Mongols and various Eastern and Western Eurasian ancestries: two subgroups harbored dominant Eastern Eurasian ancestry from Neolithic millet farmers of Yellow River Basin; another subgroup derived Eastern Eurasian ancestry primarily from Neolithic hunter-gatherers of North Asia. Besides, three-way/four-way qpAdm admixture models revealed that both north and southern Western Eurasian ancestry related to the Western Steppe herders and Iranian farmers contributed to the genetic materials into modern Mongolians. ALDER-based admixture coefficient and haplotype-based GLOBETROTTER demonstrated that the former western ancestry detected in modern Mongolian could be recently traced back to a historic period in accordance with the historical record about the westward expansion of the Mongol empire. Furthermore, the natural selection analysis of Mongolians showed that the Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) region underwent significantly positive selective sweeps. The functional genes, alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) and lactase persistence (LCT), were not identified, while the higher/lower frequencies of derived mutations were strongly correlated with the genetic affinity to East Asian/Western Eurasian populations. Our attested complex population movement and admixture in the agriculture and pasture interlaced area played an important role in the formation of modern Mongolians.

Development of a Scale to Remove Farmers’ Sustainability Barriers to Meteorological Information in Iran

Even with significant breakthroughs in the production and delivery of meteorological information, most farmers are not able to utilize such information properly and pertinently. Up to the present time, a standardized scale has not been developed to examine farmers’ sustainability barriers to meteorological information use (BMIU). Furthermore, there is no doubt that identifying indicators and dimensions of sustainability barriers to meteorological information and weather forecasts’ usage by farmers can play a major role in their adaptation and resilience to the risks of climate change. Therefore, the present study aimed to generate and validate a scale for BMIU by farmers through an eight-step approach. Accordingly, the statistical population included 9006 Iranian farmers, 368 of whom were selected as study samples. The principal component factor analysis (PCFA) and second-order confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) were further practiced to develop the scale for meteorological information and weather forecasts’ use. Factor analysis also led to the emergence of five latent factors including “educational–communicative barriers (ECBs)”, “normative barriers (NBs)”, “informational barriers (IBs)”, “infrastructural–political barriers (IPBs)”, and “professional–economic barriers (PEBs)”. The second-order CFA correspondingly confirmed these five factors and their 25 related indicators. Given the challenges facing academic scholars, decision makers, and authorities in the application and facilitation of meteorological information, the developed multidimensional scale in this study along with its implementation steps can be effective in examining the limitations of utilizing such information and measuring its impacts in different agricultural communities.

How can Iranian farmers’ attitudes toward environmental conservation be influenced?

Environmental attitudes can influence people decision making process towards environmental protection and it is an important factor to improve environmental behaviors. The current research aimed to determine effects of economic orientation, environmental awareness, environmental concern and ethical commitment on Iranian farmers’ attitude toward environment conservation. A survey of 400 farmers in Bahar County, in Hamedan Province, Iran, selected through a multistage stratified random sampling method. Data was gathered using a questionnaire which its validity and reliability were confirmed by a panel of agricultural and environmental experts and calculated Cronbach's alpha (0.74 ≤ α ≤ 0.80), respectively. Data were analyzed using structural equation modeling (SEM) to evaluate the strength of relationship between the constructs and test the overall model fit. Results of the study showed that economic orientation positively influenced the farmers' attitude toward environment conservation. Also, environmental awareness, environmental ethical commitment and environmental concern had a significant and positive effect on farmers’ environmental attitude. It can be concluded that economic factors besides psychological and social factors are able to improve farmers’ attitude to conserve environment responsibly.

Drought vulnerability assessment: Solution for risk alleviation and drought management among Iranian farmers

Drought is a natural disaster that can influence all aspects of human life with its extensive and long-term implications. Rural communities are more drought-susceptible due to their more closeness to nature and agriculture-based economy. Careful assessment of the drought vulnerability of different areas is a prerequisite for drought management as risk management has replaced crisis management to enable farmers to cope with drought effects. The present study aimed to assess the drought vulnerability of wheat farmers in southeastern Iran. The main data collection instrument was a questionnaire designed based on Me-Bar and Valdez’s (2005) study, to which new parameters were added for a more accurate assessment of vulnerability. Using Krejcie and Morgan Table, the sample size was determined to be 395 wheat farmers selected from those living in southeastern Iran with different degrees of drought severity (severe, extremely severe, and critical). The results indicated that farmers were highly vulnerable to drought and strongly affected by economic, socio-cultural, psychological, technical-environmental, and infrastructural damages. In addition, the results revealed that farmers in Sirjan and Rudbar-e Jonubi counties were the most vulnerable. The general results concerning the vulnerability in southeastern Iran show that further drought aggravation increases the farmers' vulnerability because of higher vulnerability levels in regions with more critical conditions. In general, the results can provide new insights into drought management for policymakers.

Decoupling pollution-agricultural growth and predicting climate change impacts on decoupling index using Bayesian network in different climatic regions.

Applying the principles of healthy products through agriculture practices has become an important issue due to significant environmental impacts of agrochemicals application. The agrochemicals have been recognized as an essential component of modern agriculture, but they are also an important source of environmental pollution that threatens the human's health and are main sources of carbon emissions. Pesticides and fertilizers application are important in the process of Iran's food production. In Iran, intensifying the agricultural production has led to overuse of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. This work is the first effort to quantify and compare the decoupling index pollution from agricultural sector using Tapio decoupling indicator and predict climate change impacts on this index by using Bayesian network across the whole country of Iran. For this purpose, required annual data of predictor variables for the period of 2008 to 2018 was used to calculate the decoupling index. For projecting climate change impacts on this index by using Bayesian network, monthly mean values of climatic variables were used. While Iranian farmers are criticized for pesticide overuse, these study findings showed that during the period of 2008-2018, decoupling index for pesticides (agricultural pollution by using pesticide) and decoupling index for fertilizer (agricultural pollution by using fertilizer) in the selected provinces fluctuate between RD-SD, SD-SD, SD-SD, and RD-SD. Therefore, the decoupling states show that in most study years, there is a strong decoupling of agricultural growth in selected provinces. This means that in the selected provinces, pollutant emissions of chemical fertilizer and pesticides use for agricultural productions have decreased and it has been well controlled. Therefore, by expansion of agricultural sector, the situation of agricultural pollution in these provinces in most years has not been intensified. Control of agricultural pollution in these provinces has shown a positive and significant impact on public health. In selected provinces, the cleaner agricultural products and application of organic fertilizers have been increased. This study results also showed that the climate change will accelerate increment of pests population and thus pesticides application in different climatic regions.

Understanding Farmers’ Intention towards the Management and Conservation of Wetlands

The aim of the present research was to analyze the farmers’ intention towards participation in the management and conservation of wetlands through the lens of the extended theory of planned behavior (TPB). To do this, a cross-sectional survey of Iranian farmers was carried out. To select the samples, a multi-stage random sampling process with a proportional assignment was employed. The research instrument was a researcher-made questionnaire whose validity and reliability were verified using various quantitative and qualitative indicators. The results of the extended TPB using structural equation modeling showed that four variables, namely moral norms of participation in management and conservation (MNPMC), attitude towards participation in management and conservation (APMC), subjective norms towards participation in management and conservation (SNPMC), and self-concept about participation in management and conservation (SCPMC) had positive and significant impacts on intention towards participation in management and conservation (IPMC). The results also revealed that that entering MNPMC and SCPMC into TPB could increase its explanatory power. Also, the fit indicators supported the extended TPB. From a practical point of view, the present study provides justifications and insights for the use of MNPMC, APMC, SNPMC, and SCPMC in policies and programs intended to encourage farmers and local communities to participate in wetlands management and conservation.

Genetic Continuity of Bronze Age Ancestry with Increased Steppe-Related Ancestry in Late Iron Age Uzbekistan.

Although Uzbekistan and Central Asia are known for the well-studied Bronze Age civilization of the Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC), the lesser-known Iron Age was also a dynamic period that resulted in increased interaction and admixture among different cultures from this region. To broaden our understanding of events that impacted the demography and population structure of this region, we generated 27 genome-wide single-nucleotide polymorphism capture data sets of Late Iron Age individuals around the Historical Kushan time period (∼2100–1500 BP) from three sites in South Uzbekistan. Overall, Bronze Age ancestry persists into the Iron Age in Uzbekistan, with no major replacements of populations with Steppe-related ancestry. However, these individuals suggest diverse ancestries related to Iranian farmers, Anatolian farmers, and Steppe herders, with a small amount of West European Hunter Gatherer, East Asian, and South Asian Hunter Gatherer ancestry as well. Genetic affinity toward the Late Bronze Age Steppe herders and a higher Steppe-related ancestry than that found in BMAC populations suggest an increased mobility and interaction of individuals from the Northern Steppe in a Southward direction. In addition, a decrease of Iranian and an increase of Anatolian farmer-like ancestry in Uzbekistan Iron Age individuals were observed compared with the BMAC populations from Uzbekistan. Thus, despite continuity from the Bronze Age, increased admixture played a major role in the shift from the Bronze to the Iron Age in southern Uzbekistan. This mixed ancestry is also observed in other parts of the Steppe and Central Asia, suggesting more widespread admixture among local populations.

What factors contribute to conversion to organic farming? Consideration of the Health Belief Model in relation to the uptake of organic farming by Iranian farmers

Organic Farming (OF) is a response to challenges caused by conventional or intensive agriculture. Successful organic production depends on farmers choosing to grow organic products. The main goal of this study is to analyze and identify factors affecting farmers’ willingness to implement OF in southwest Iran. For this, we borrowed the health belief model (HBM) from the health psychology domain. The study, a questionnaire-based cross-sectional survey in Behbahan County, Khuzestan province, in southwest Iran, comprises 320 farmers who were selected through a multistage random sampling technique. The structural equations modeling reveals that four variables – cue to action, perceived barriers, general beliefs, and perceived benefits – account for 54% of the variance in farmers’ willingness toward OF. Furthermore, cue to action is the most important factor determining farmer willingness towards implementing OF. The results reveal that HBM has appropriate explanatory power and is an effective tool for investigating farmer willingness toward OF. It is suggested that government agencies use socio-psychological frameworks to develop organic agriculture. Additionally, as government agencies develop policies that increase OF, the consideration of how farmers perceive the benefits and barriers of implementing OF is critical, along with understanding their general beliefs and concerns about the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in conventional agriculture. Offering extension services is also key.

The lived-experience of land-use among Northern Iranian farmers in land risk areas: A phenomenology study

Exploring the lived-experiences of community farmers will contribute to the perspective of land issues and help formulate and plan sustainable land management. Therefore, the aim of this study was to explore the lived-experiences of farmers regarding land-use and management in northern Iran, which is facing land degradation and land grabbing problems. For this purpose, a phenomenological approach was undertaken to show how the past and present process of land-use and management practices is made. In this research, key farmers who had land utilization experiences, feeling the land laws, land changes and land issues in the past in land risk areas were selected using key informants sampling. The gathered data of interviews were analyzed according to Colaizzi method. Fifty-five important statements and 11 themes were extracted from participants’ experiences (PE) in three periods: pre-land reform period and on the threshold of it in Iran, post-land reform until Islamic revolution and after the revolution till now. The lived-experience of participants showed that pre-land reform period in Iran was known for its hierarchical structure to "owner-peasant" contexts of the land-use and management in the study area. The importance of forest and river as the origin of arable land and physical-spatial structure of rural settlements is undeniable. Post-land reform PE indicated that the land reform enforcement was a factor of change in the land-use and management practices that led to ownership problems. Participants’ experiences regarding land changes after the Islamic revolution till now expressed that despite the new inhibitor rules regarding land management practices, farmers are likely to bring about land-use changes. Recommendations and implications for land management policy are offered to reduce the land degradation and land grabbing.

Pesticides, metals, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in date fruits: A probabilistic assessment of risk to health of Iranian consumers

The present study assessed the risk posed by simultaneous oral exposure to a mixture of 22 pesticides, 6 metals, and 16 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in fruits of date palms, to Iranian consumers. Various cultivars of dates were collected from six regions in Iran. Concentrations of organic compounds and metals in 900 samples of date fruits were quantified by chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC–MS) and inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES), respectively. No significant associations between any of the contaminants and cultivation zones were observed. Calculated Hazard Quotients (HQ) was <1.0 for all pesticides and calculated total Hazard Index (HI) values indicated no major risk. For the carcinogenic metals, estimated Incremental Life Time Cancer Risk (ILCRs) at the 50th and 95th percentiles were respectively 2.25 × 10−7 and 7.10 × 10−7 for As, and respectively 1.24 × 10-9 and 5.38 × 10-9 for Pb which indicated no risk. Notably, non-carcinogenic metals did not exhibit a significant risk (HI values <1.0 for both cases). In addition, at the 50th and 95th percentiles, ILCR and Margins of Exposure (MoE) for PAHs indicated no risk. Based on sensitivity analysis, concentrations of analytes had the greatest effects on risk with regard to carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic assessment endpoints. However, consumers are aware of the composition of the fruits they eat, because harmful substances in fruits normally cannot be perceived by tasting or smelling. It can also be noted that general awareness of Iranian farmers need to be upgraded for a more cautious utilization of pesticides and fertilizers in agricultural practices. Moreover, our results about the PAHs indicated that the consumption of dates grown near the industrial sites is risky and should be completely avoided.

Socio-economic, social-capital, and psychological characteristics and climate change adaptive behavior of farmers in Iran

In recent years, climate change in Iran has led to frequent droughts and reduction of available water resources. Iranian farmers are extremely vulnerable to unexpected drought. Despite the undesirable impacts of climate change on their vulnerability, farmers have not sufficiently used adaptive strategies; accordingly, we investigated factors affecting farmers’ choice of adaptive strategies to lessen the consequences of climate change in Iran. We propose a framework that covers household, farm, socio-economic, social-capital, and psychological characteristics. Farmers (n = 366) in Fars province, Iran, were selected using a multistage, stratified random sampling method, and data were collected through questionnaires during 2018-2019. Considering the adaptive strategies of changing crop varieties, crop patterns, and irrigation technologies, a multinomial logit model was used. The results showed that off-farm income and access to credit had a significant positive effect on adopting costly and efficient strategies, including changing crop varieties and irrigation technologies. Moreover, our results indicated that when farmers actively participate in social groups, their beliefs and risk perception of climate change become stronger, providing greater incentives to employ adaptive strategies. This study revealed the effective role of social-capital and psychological characteristics in the adaptive behavior of farmers in Iran.

THE YAMNA CULTURE: ORIGIN AND MIGRATIONS IN THE CONTEXT OF THE FRONTIER THEORY

In the IV millennium BC the tradition of erecting burial mounds (kurgans) began to spread in various parts of Europe. A wide distribution of this tradition is associated with the tribes of the Yamnaya culture (YC) in the early Bronze Age. An analysis of the main components of the YC shows that the carriers of the YC were primarily united by the commonality of the worldview and religious-mythological ideas.Reflected in a unified funeral rite, the «new ideology» became the basis for the formation of a new cultural and historical community, characterized by the bringing together a diverse population based on the adoption of an innovative worldview.There are obvious material culture differences among the local groups of YC, which are manifested in ceramics and other artifacts. The data from genetics also show certain heterogeneity of the carriers of the YC, at the same time indicating core genetic features that most likely reflect the common origin of the representatives of the YC from the Meso-Eneolithic Ponto-Caspian populations infused with genetic determinants characteristic of hunters and gatherers of the Caucasus and Iranian farmers, with varying genetic admixture of Anatolian and European Neolithic farmers.

Evaluating micro-irrigation system performance through assessment of farmers' satisfaction: implications for adoption, longevity, and water use efficiency

It is generally recognized that the success of agricultural innovations depends to a large extent on farmers’ satisfaction with them. ٌWhile the acceptance of drip irrigation among Iranian farmers is low, this study aims to investigate farmers' satisfaction with drip irrigation technology and related factors. The European satisfaction model (ESM) was used to achieve this aim. A cross-sectional paper-based survey was conducted among farmers (n = 174) in the Behbahan county of southwest Iran. The ESM analysis results showed that perceived “hard” quality was positive in predicting perceived value. Results also indicated that perceived value, perceived image, and both "hard" and "human" quality directly affected farmers’ satisfaction. These four variables were able to predict 68% variance in farmers’ satisfaction. Moreover, loyalty was firmly positively affected by satisfaction and perceived image. Based on these results, policies were suggested to increase farmers' satisfaction and, consequently, to extend drip irrigation among Iranian farmers.

The effects of farmers’ place attachment and identity on water conservation moral norms and intention

Investment in the behavioral change projects would not be possible without knowing their prerequisites and determinants including intention, moral norms, identity, and place attachment. Therefore, this study aimed at the determination of the effects of place attachment (PAT) (place dependence (PDE), place identity (PID), and place affect (PAF)) and farmers’ identity (conservationist identity (CONID) and productivist identity (PROID)) on the moral norms of water conservation (MNWC) as well as the intention of water conservation (IWC) of the Iranian farmers. This was a descriptive-correlational and causal-relational study. The instrument of the study was a questionnaire completed using a cross-sectional survey and face-to-face interviews. Hence, a stratified random sampling method along with a proportionate allocation was used to select 380 farmers. The research findings indicated that the PAT (PDE, PID, and PAF) and CONID had significant positive effects on the MNWC. In addition, MNWC and CONID had significant positive effects on the IWC. However, PROID had a significant negative effect on the MNWC and IWC. In general, it was found that independent variables (PDE, PID, PAF, PROID, and CONID) could predict 39% and 53% of the variance of the MNWC and IWC variables, respectively. Moreover, the social-psychological framework of the study provides practitioners, decision-makers, policymakers, researchers, and other stakeholders of the agricultural water management with useful practical and theoretical insights about the practices of behavior changes and social interventions. Finally, it is recommended that government decision-makers should further focus on the increased attractiveness of the rural and agricultural areas to increase PAT, MNWC, and IWC.

Explaining farmers’ response to climate change-induced water stress through cognitive theory of stress: an Iranian perspective

This study investigates the underlying causes of farmers’ adaptation responses in the face of the negative impacts of climate change on water resources in Iran. We applied the theory of cognitive stress to examine and clarify how farmers respond to climate change-induced water stress as an environmental stressor, using a multistage, clustered, random sampling method of farmers (n = 250) in a survey conducted in southwestern Iran. Our analyses revealed that both demand appraisal and self-efficacy are significant predictors of problem-focused coping, which, in turn, influenced farmers’ adaptation responses. The theory accounted for 31% of the variance in farmers’ problem-focused coping behavior, which, in turn, accounts for around 39% of the variance in adaptation responses. We anticipate that the findings will result in recommendations for policymakers and advisors to extension organizations and that it will ultimately be used to inform strategies to encourage effective adaptation responses to water scarcity among Iranian farmers.

How collective efficacy makes a difference in responses to water shortage due to climate change in southwest Iran

Climate change impacts the water sector in a manner that reduces the harvest and income of farmers, thereby exacerbating poverty and many other social problems. However, through adaptation measures, farmers can manage climate change impacts and thus reduce their vulnerability. To design effective public adaptation strategies, it is crucial to understand farmers’ behaviors at the farm level in response to water shortage due to climate change. Thus, the aim of this research is to accrue empirical evidence about farmers’ perceptions of and responses to water shortage due to climate change, using the Protection Motivation Theory. To increase the predictive power of the model, this paper added the collective efficacy variable to the model. The population of interest consisted of farmers from Shushtar, a county in Khuzestan Province, southwestern Iran. A total of 251 farmers were selected using a multi-stage, clustered, random sampling method. The results of structural equation modeling revealed that model variables accounted for 39 % of variance in farmers’ adaptation behaviors. The inclusion of collective efficacy in the original model increased its predictive power and produced a model of a better fit; the proportion of variance accounted for an increase of about 11 %. These findings are expected to yield recommendations for public policy, as well as agricultural extension and education recommendations for stimulating successful adaptation behaviors among Iranian farmers.

Factors influencing farmers’ adaptation strategies in confronting the drought in Iran

While the literature on adaptation to drought has increasingly focused on investigating farmers’ understanding of drought, no comprehensive study has been conducted on behavior determinants and farmers’ adaptation strategies so far. To address this research gap, the current study was performed to investigate the effective factors and determinants on applying adaptation strategies by farmers in Iran. The statistical sample of the study included 430 farmers in East Azerbaijan province (located in northwest of Iran) selected through multistage sampling method. Study results after categorization of adaptation strategies (AS) first indicated that, the farmers under study suffer from a lack of high adaptation but in order to add more accuracy and grouping farmers’ strategies in drought condition, exploratory factor analysis was applied in which they were categorized as self-control, active and integrated strategies. Next, structural equation modeling was adopted to study the effective factors on applying AS by farmers confronted with the drought. The results showed that, social, environmental, infrastructure, and economic factors exert a positively significant effect on selecting the AS whereas, human-related factors were proved to have an insignificant effect on adopting the AS. The results associated with structural equations indicated that, effective factors account for 93.3% of variance in application of AS which is a highly considerable rate. Indeed, these results revealed high importance of social factor, environmental factor, infrastructure factor and economic factors in applying the AS among the farmers. Therefore, our findings offered solutions as to how to reduce risks in farmers’ activities during drought conditions to improve adaptation behavior of Iranian farmers.