Dynamics Of International Trade Research Articles

Структура і потенціал логістичного сектору України

The article examines the dynamics of international trade, the investment attractiveness of markets, the development of logistics infrastructure, the principles of choosing a methodology for evaluating the development of logistics systems by region. The index of the development of the logistics market proposed by the International Financial Group "Agility", which has been successfully used for more than five years, was analyzed. The Agility Emerging Markets Logistics Index reflects the degree of attractiveness of the logistics market for investments, and the level of investment attractiveness is assessed by a set of indicators: the development of transport communications, magnitude and dynamics of development, market compatibility. The ranking of countries according to the Agility Emerging Markets Logistics Index 2023 was analyzed, including with details. It was determined that, in these difficult conditions in the domestic market, processes of transformation of logistics firms into logistics operators working with the provision of a complex of logistics services are taking place, as well as the entry of some powerful logistics operators into the market, which will contribute to the strengthening of competition and the expansion of the portfolio of offers. A significant trend is the transformation of logistics firms into logistics operators. It was concluded that there is practically no competition between retailers in Ukraine, trade networks transfer logistics functions to suppliers of goods, manufacturers compete fiercely in matters of their own presence in trade networks, which increases competition between enterprises - manufacturers and distributors, increasing the level of logistics service.The use of the services of 3PL providers by domestic enterprises with the delegation of the functions of managing supply chains and inventory to operators will be expedient under the conditions of stable markets as a significant competitive advantage, which will consist in reducing costs by outsourcing logistics as a non-core function, excluding distributors. The activity of 3PL providers is determined, conceptually, by the search for a supplier and a consumer with the transfer of supply chain management directly to the 3PL operator, who at the same time is forced to compete with a pure distributor as commercial intermediaries in the commodity market. Conversely, a distributor with developed stable sales technologies through the development of logistics functions will have advantages and the opportunity to compete in the provision of 3PL services.

International Trade and Innovation Dynamics with Endogenous Markups

Abstract We argue that the recent increases in market concentration and markups are partly due to an ‘innovation feedback effect’ of globalisation. Lower trade costs increase innovation incentives for global firms. As the winners of the ensuing innovation race increase their technological advantage, concentration and markups rise. We develop an endogenous growth model capturing this effect and calibrate it to US manufacturing data. We find that the increase in trade between 1989 and 2007 raised the aggregate markup by 3.5 percentage points. This is entirely due to innovation: without the innovation response, markups would have fallen by 4 percentage points.

Uluslararası fındık ticaretinin gelişimi ve ihracat etkisinin belirleyicileri

Purpose: It is aimed to examine the determinants of export impact of countries which trade hazelnuts, especially Turkey.Design/Methodology/Approach: In this study, the evolution of the dynamics of international hazelnut trade is examined from 1990 to 2018 via complex network analysis. Then, we analyzed the determinants of international hazelnut trade by using panel data analysis for the same period. After revealing complex system features with network approach, a high-degree indicator of export impact (hub centrality), which is the findings obtained from network analysis, has been used as the dependent variable in panel data analysis.Findings: In the panel approach, we examined the long-run relationship between hub centralities of the top five countries (Turkey, Italy, Georgia, Chile, and Azerbaijan) and area harvested for the period 1996-2018. Within this scope; the complex network approach showed that Turkey is always the leader of the international hazelnut trade network while Italy, Georgia, Chile, and Azerbaijan are the countries on the rise. Panel cointegration results revealed that the area harvested has a positive impact on hub centralities of hazelnut producer countries (Turkey, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Chile), except Italy. This impact is the highest in Azerbaijan, and Georgia and Chile follow this country. Area harvested has the lowest impact on hub centrality of Turkey.Originality/Value: The study makes an important contribution to the literature in terms of revealing the importance of hazelnut area harvested in hazelnut export with the findings obtained by using two different methods.

An Approach to the Analysis of the Intensity of the International Trade Dynamics on the Example of the European Union Countries

International trade is an important component of the national economy of any country in the world, as well as a leading form of international economic relations. Changes in the main indicators of foreign trade, such as exports, imports, trade balance, can cause significant imbalances in the parameters of economic growth of the subjects of such relations.The article proposes an approach to analyzing the intensity of dynamic changes in international trade in goods on the example of EU countries during 2004-2021 with using such methodological approaches as grouping, comparison, calculation and analysis of absolute and relative characteristics of dynamics. For this purpose, two groups of countries where distinguished: countries that were members of the EU before 2004 (Austria, Belgium, Great Britain, Denmark, Ireland, Germany, Spain, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, France, Greece, Portugal, Sweden and Finland) and countries that became members of the EU after 2004 (Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Czech Republic, Hungary, Cyprus. Bulgaria, Romania and Croatia). In carrying out the study, the cost indicators of trade transactions of the EU countries were used. With the help of such indicators as specific weight, chain and basic growth rates, coefficients of advance, the intensity of export and import dynamics in terms of selected groups where analyzed. The main trends and determinants of the development of export import activities, under the influence of which there were certain changes in the international trade of the EU countries during the period under study, were identified. These determinants include EU enlargement in 2004, the 2009 financial crisis and the COVID 2019 pandemic. Three periods of development of foreign trade of the member countries of this integration group are distinguished. The 5 largest exporter and importer countries, as well as the largest net exporters and net importers in terms of allocated groups, were identified. The results of the analysis also indicate that the countries that joined the EU after 2004 actively used their membership in the context of the development of foreign economic activity: they rapidly increased the volume of merchandise exports and imports. It has been proved that the proposed approach is effective for analyzing the nature of dynamic changes in international trade of any international organizations, integration associations, etc.

Food safety and public health within the frame of the EU legislation

The purpose of this article is to examine some of the issues related to qualitative food safety within the framework of European Union legislation. The development of a multidimensional regulatory system at European level, which has necessarily included international sources, regulations and European Union laws, also relating to national and regional legislations, has rendered finding a balance between the legitimate interests of food producers and consumers problematic. In recent years, the ethical dimension of food has progressively developed, which has led to a greater attention to the way food is produced and consumed, while respecting health protection, food quality and European and international trade dynamics. On the consumer side, however, there has been a growing awareness of the possible risks linked to food and an attention to the issues of food safety. Such awareness is intensified by the use of certain technologies in the food sector. Consumers are increasingly looking to buy commercial products capable of minimizing damage to their health. Consumers consciousness has also influenced the industry, which has increasingly felt the need to pay greater attention to the entire production cycle, thus encouraging production carried out by following the correct methods of supply, processing, up to the final stages of packaging, storage, processing and distribution, in accordance with the “Good Agricultural Practices” (GAP). In conclusion, the important monitoring path of product traceability that has led to a significant increase in the commitment to EU legislative supervision, risk assessment and review of the substances used in food production.

Dollar Invoicing, Global Value Chains, and the Business Cycle Dynamics of International Trade

Dollar Invoicing, Global Value Chains, and the Business Cycle Dynamics of International Trade

Regional development, innovation systems and service companies’ performance

• Relationship between geographic scope and financial performance examined. • Host-country innovation activities are examined. • Technology and international trade dynamics are explored. • Service companies in UK are examined. This paper examines the impact of firm-level research and development (R&D) and country-level innovation on the relationship between geographic scope and financial performance. Using econometric estimation to analyze data from a sample of 339 United Kingdom (UK) service companies over the period from 2011 to 2017, we found a concave relationship between geographic scope and financial performance. Moreover, the results indicated that UK service companies that increase their R&D expenditure accrue a higher performance from higher geographic scope. This is because the relationship becomes convex but the foreign country's innovation has no direct effect on UK service companies’ performance. Additional results showed that performance differences from geographic scope and the influence of firm-level R&D and country-level innovation exist between SMEs and large firms, and between private and public firms.

International Trade Dynamics with Sunk Costs and Productivity Shocks

This paper offers a unified framework to analyze both short- and long-run trade dynamics in a consistent manner. It explains “the international elasticity puzzle”, a low trade elasticity against temporary shocks and a high trade elasticity against permanent shocks, studied in Ruhl (2008). The model in this paper extends the idea of export sunk costs and uncertainty to more general productivity shock processes by embedding the classical theory of “export hysteresis” into a continuous-time trade model with heterogeneous firms, and considers the effects of both aggregate and idiosyncratic productivity shocks. A sharp analytical characterization of the equilibrium elucidates the microfoundations of trade dynamics linking a static trade model with heterogeneous firms and an international macroeconomic model. Due to the sunk costs and uncertainty, firms do not change their export status against small temporary shocks. Aggregate productivity shocks and export sunk costs explain the elasticity puzzle because of the different adjustments on the extensive margin. If the productivity shocks are idiosyncratic, the economy is in a steady state, with individual firms moving around within a stationary distribution of productivities. Export hysteresis gives rise to a region of firm productivity where both exporters and non-exporters coexist given the same current productivity. The full model incorporates both types of shocks and offers realistic microfoundations of trade dynamics including simultaneous export entry and exit, an evolving productivity density of exporters, and the sluggish trade response to aggregate shocks.

Peran Pemerintah Kotabumi Meningkatkan Perdagangan Internasional Khususnya Ekspor

International trade is the main pillar of the global economy, therefore the government's role is needed to improve the quality and quantity of international trade, especially exports, by implementing import duty exemption policies and providing incentives for MSMEs. The government must also be able to take advantage of the potential for market expansion and improve people's welfare. However, strict supervision of imports is also needed to protect domestic industry from the negative impacts of international trade. The government needs to use various instruments, such as tariffs and import quotas, to strike a balance between protecting local industry and meeting domestic needs. Free trade agreements are also an important instrument for opening wider market access. This research highlights the key role of government in managing the dynamics of international trade for sustainable economic growth and societal welfare. Keywords : International Trade, Government, Export

Ескалація глобальних ризиків і загроз в умовах пандемії: фінансовий і макроекономічний аспекти

Potentially threatening phenomena on the way to stabilizing and overcoming depressive trends in the global economy in the medium and long term in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic have been identified and systematized, taking into account the identification of areas of global risk. The reformatting of the global socio-economic landscape is substantiated, which is determined by the course of the pandemic, the different rates of decline and recovery of the economic growth in general and in individual industries, the destabilization of public finances, the exacerbation of social protection problems. This is confirmed by the dynamics of international trade in goods and services, the aggravation of the global debt problem. Emphasis is placed on the need to form in each country the anti-crisis potential on a scientifically sound basis in order to counter external and internal threats and stimulate sustainable socio-economic development.

Зовнішньоекономічні відносини між Україною та Китаєм: основні напрямки розвитку

The article is devoted to the problems of developing foreign trade relations between Ukraine and China, as China ranks first in terms of trade among other trade partners of Ukraine. The article analyzes the reasons for China's interest in Ukraine and possible benefits for our country. The countries' export, import, foreign trade turnover, and foreign trade balance indicators are studied. The calculated indicators allowed us to state a positive trade balance for most goods, which indicates the advantage of exports over imports. The growth rates of exports and imports for the main product groups are calculated. It is concluded that the dynamics of international trade for ferrous metals, seeds, and fruits export growth rates are the highest, and electric machines and flour products - the lowest. The necessity of direct investments for further development in all spheres of the economy is substantiated. The structure of investment cooperation between Ukraine and China is analyzed, and conclusions are made about the number of direct investments coming from China. Based on the research and study of literature sources on the selected topic, the following conclusions were drawn on the prospects of foreign trade relations between China and Ukraine: it is advisable to study in detail the development of China's interests to adjust Ukraine's export policy to revive cooperation partners of Ukraine; as for the Ukrainian-Chinese trade relations, the following product groups have particular prospects for development: already positive in the foreign trade balance (corn, soybeans, barley, dairy products, honey), negative in the foreign trade balance (poultry, pork, fruits, vegetables) ) and products that do not require special state permits (sunflower oil and a wide range of food products). It is expedient to develop bilateral relations in mutually beneficial areas for both countries; there is a positive trade balance for most goods. For ferrous metals, seeds, and fruits, the export growth rates are the highest. For electric machines and flour products - the lowest, we need to emphasize the stabilization of exports of commodity groups, where export growth has increased. Ukraine needs to make tremendous efforts to join the «One Belt, One Road» initiative as a participant: because our country is only a watchdog. Also, you need to show more initiative and declare your desire to join the project «16 + 1»

Characteristics and patterns of international trade in CITES-listed live birds in China from 2010 to 2019

There is a large international trade in live birds, which could affect wild bird populations at both national and global scales. It is thus crucial to understand the temporal and geographical dynamics of international trade in wildlife periodically to inform management. We characterized the international legal trade in live birds of species listed in the Appendices of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) by China from 2010 to 2019, and investigated the potential factors influencing this trade. According to the CITES Trade Database, China imported more than 90,000 live birds of about 130 species and exported only 603 live birds of 10 species from 2010 to 2019, indicating that China was a major importer of this group. Most bird species imported by China were Psittaciformes (e.g., Grey Parrot Psittacus erithacus, accounting for 86% of the total imported individuals), while most birds exported from China were Psittaciformes (75%; e.g., Fischer's Lovebird Agapornis fischeri) and Falconiformes (24%; e.g., Saker Falcon Falco cherrug,). These species were traded for different purposes such as commercial activities, zoo, and personal needs. Trading partners included over 40 countries: South Africa, Mali, Guyana, and Suriname were the main exporters of live birds to China, while Qatar and Saudi Arabia were the main importers of live birds from China. The optimal generalized linear model suggested that the bird species richness imported to China was only positively correlated with bird-keeping culture of the exporting countries, which contributed a large quantity (77.87%) to the variation of the bird species richness in trade based on the hierarchical partitioning analyses. Our results may have broad implications for better management of international bird trade with China, including improving population monitoring within their native ranges and invasion risk assessment of the most highly-traded wild-caught and non-native species, improving monitoring and reporting their trade, etc. Further studies are needed to look at trade in particular groups of birds (e.g. Psittaciformes and Falconiformes) for better understanding and management.

СУЧАСНІ ТЕНДЕНЦІЇ РОЗВИТКУ ЗОВНІШНЬОЕКОНОМІЧНОЇ ДІЯЛЬНОСТІ УКРАЇНИ

The article examines the directions of the country’s foreign trade balancing, taking into account the development vector of Ukraine’s investment potential. The author analyzed the balance of payments of the state and the strategy formation to reduce the balance of payments deficit and improving of the state of investment activity. Today, attention is growing to the importance not only of the country’s balance of payments, but also to the international investment position. One of the areas of government policy which can create conditions for economic development is the balance of payments and the transition to the surplus trade. That is why, in the context of internationalization of economic relations, the effective use of resources and investment potential of the country get crucial place. The main strategic goal of public policy should be the development vector of foreign economic activity of the country, with an effective policy to support domestic enterprisers, export orientation and high value-added production. The processes of economic development led to the expansion of international exchange of goods and services and as a result of the rapid growth of trade processes require the country to have strong global state, taking into account macroeconomic regulation. The previous analysis of current trends in the development of Ukraine’s foreign economic activity, including investment activity, gives grounds to assert that Ukraine is an active participant in global investment processes. The author approved that the key aspect which can change the negative trend towards the trade deficit is the country’s active export activity, import substitution of commodity positions, as well as the development of industries specializing in the production of high value-added products. Therefore, measures of state regulation direct to developing investment opportunities in Ukraine should be aimed to: analysis of the existing economy, taking into account, the foreign economic activity of the country; import substitution; domestic market development, export expansion. The article analyzes the structure of the balance of payments, the dynamics of trade turnover, investment performance and international trade. The author also proposed measures to improve the balance of payments of Ukraine by taking into account the trends of Ukraine’s foreign economic activity, increasing investment attractiveness and realizing Ukraine’s investment opportunities.

Dynamics of international trade, technology innovation and environmental sustainability: evidence from Asia by accounting for cross-sectional dependence

This study explores the mechanism of how trade openness (TO) affects CO2 emissions via the scale and technique effects in the Asian region over the 1990–2015 period. The results obtained by employing cross-sectional augmented estimators indicate that: (i) trade-induced technology innovation (TI) reduces CO2 emissions; (ii) trade-facilitated economic growth results in higher CO2 emissions; (iii) the positive scale effect outweighs the negative technique effects. Furthermore, TO also produces a rebound effect of TI on emissions for Southern and Western Asia. The Dumitrescu–Hurlin causality test reveals that TO Granger causes economic growth and TI, which in turn cause CO2 emissions. Besides, quadri-directional causality is observed between TO, TI, energy consumption and emissions, suggesting that these variables are mutually reinforcing. The findings suggest that the goals of environmental sustainability can be attained if the pace of national output growth is accompanied by environmental regulations and clean technology improvements when framing comprehensive trade policy.

ВПЛИВ ПАНДЕМІЇ COVID-19 НА ГЛОБАЛІЗАЦІЙНІ ПРОЦЕСИ У СВІТОВІЙ ЕКОНОМІЦІ

In recent decades, the world economy has been actively moving towards an integrated global economic system, characterized by the reduction of barriers to international trade and investment, "reduction" of distances through the development of modern means of transportation and communication, smoothing cultural differences. This process, called globalization, has become an integral feature of the world economy in recent decades. However, in 2020, the globalization process was affected by quarantine restrictions caused by the Covid-19 pandemic. The study of the features and consequences of such influence is especially relevant given that globalization processes form the environment for the functioning of the subjects of international economic relations. The article analyzes the features and consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic on globalization processes in the world economy. The essence of globalization and its key features, opportunities and threats of the globalization process for international business entities are revealed, the driving forces of globalization are revealed. The impact of the coronavirus pandemic on the dynamics of international trade and world gross domestic product is analyzed. The forecast values of these indicators for 2021-2022, presented by the World Trade Organization, are revealed. The key aspects of the policy of governments in a pandemic are highlighted. The impact of quarantine restrictions on transport and migration worldwide has been demonstrated. The state and prospects of world investments after the pandemic are assessed. Of particular note is the fact that the vast majority of international companies, despite the severe consequences of the pandemic for their activities, have not begun to break their international ties with contractors and focus on domestic production. The production chains of multinational corporations, built over the years to ensure high efficiency, did not break down due to the temporary difficulties associated with the pandemic. This is an important indicator that allows us to say that there are no significant prerequisites for expecting active deglobalization processes in the world. In view of the research, the conclusions on the slowdown of the global economy under the influence of the pandemic and the absence of signs of active deglobalization are formulated and substantiated.

МІЖНАРОДНА ТОРГІВЛЯ КОНТРАФАКТНОЮ ПРОДУКЦІЄЮ: СТРУКТУРА ТА МЕТОДИ МИТНОГО РЕГУЛЮВАННЯ

International trade in counterfeit products has become a real global epidemic, causing significant damage to business and the global economy. The widespread spread of this problem undermines the foundations of economic development, a stable economic system, free trade and investment. The article examines the essence of the concept of «counterfeit products» and «counterfeit products», which is a type of counterfeit. Сounterfeit products are products that contain objects of intellectual property rights, the import of which into the customs territory of Ukraine or export from this territory leads to a violation of the rights of the owner and which are protected in accordance with current legislation of Ukraine and international treaties of Ukraine. The classification of counterfeit products is offered, which will give the chance to specify the analysis on the corresponding kinds and to choose effectively methods of regulation. The reasons for the active growth of international trade in counterfeits have been studied аmong the main ones are: dissatisfaction with people's needs, the desire of the population to receive high incomes, the complexity of original production, shortage of certain consumer products, low incomes, the need for large-scale investment, long production cycle, low production mobility, inability to purchase branded goods. The structure and dynamics of international trade in counterfeit by geographical and commodity characteristics are analyzed. The consequences of international trade in counterfeit goods for countries are highlighted аmong the main ones are: reduction of budget revenues, threat to the image of the right holder, which may provoke a devaluation of the brand price, threat to the country's image, which will negatively affect investment and innovation, risks to consumer health and safety, market destabilization, threat to economic and technical development, loss of profit, threat to the environment, sponsorship of terrorism and organized crime, reduction of demand for the products of the right holder, which leads to the liquidation of production, reducing the competitiveness of rights holders in the domestic market, rising unemployment. Methods of customs regulation of international trade in counterfeit goods are considered, and their efficiency is analyzed in Ukraine and in the world. Proposals for improving customs regulation methods have been developed.

Сучасні міжнародні та вітчизняні тенденції розвитку галузі виноробства як результат ефективної взаємодії стейкхолдерів

The winemaking industry plays a significant role both in the world economy and in the national one, is an important part of the world economy in general and Ukraine in particular, being a significant budget-forming component. The article is aimed at improving, on the basis of the study of modern international and domestic tendencies in the sphere of winemaking, the classification of stakeholders in the development of enterprises of the viticulture and winemaking industry, the effective interaction of which will ensure the active functioning and success of the wine business. Based on the analysis of modern international and domestic tendencies in the development of the winemaking industry, it is specified that the geography of winemaking is gradually expanding throughout the world. The winemaking industry is developing steadily at the world level, the dynamics of international trade in wine is positive and is determined by many players in the international market and leaders around the world. In Ukraine, due to the large number of factors, the winemaking industry is narrowing, imports significantly exceed exports. Under such conditions, the search and introduction of effective principles for improving the efficiency of functioning and development of industry enterprises becomes urgent. Such principles are the definition of stakeholders in the development of industry enterprises for their active involvement in cooperation and effective interaction. Application of stakeholder-oriented approaches in the processes of stabilization and development of enterprises in the winemaking industry will balance the interests of consumers, customers, that is, a wide range of stakeholders, and increase the efficiency of their interaction. Prospects for further research are to determine the threshold values of the stakeholders’ stimulating, neutral and destimulating influences.

МОЖЛИВОСТІ РЕАЛІЗАЦІЇ ПОТЕНЦІАЛУ СФЕРИ ПОСЛУГ У ГЛОБАЛЬНІЙ ЕКОНОМІЦІ

The relevance of the study is due to the growing role of services in the world economy. Trade in services has become the dominant driver of economic growth and development in both developed and developing economies. Since the 1980s, data suggest that there is a stronger relationship between trade in services and gross domestic product (GDP) than in the case of commodity growth and GDP. It is noted that the quality of policies, regulations and institutional frameworks is a key factor in determining the effectiveness of services. As services are increasingly subject to liberalization through multilateral and regional trade agreements, it is important that countries develop harmonized approaches to internal regulation and trade liberalization in the services sector. The article identifies the features and characteristics of the service sector as a factor of multifaceted development and growth. The dynamics of international trade in services by geographical structure and types of development of countries is studied on the basis of statistical data of international organizations, taking into account the impact of the pandemic. It is noted that international trade in services is becoming an increasingly important part of global commerce. The problematic aspects of the activity of small business entities to enter foreign markets of services are considered. The issue of urgency of digital economy development for the sphere of services and contribution to world markets is outlined. Opening up the services sector has the potential to bring great benefits and deserves more attention. Further prospects for the realization of entrepreneurial potential in a comprehensive global economy are outlined. It is noted that services are an important part of the world economy, generating more than two-thirds of world gross domestic product (GDP), attracting more than three-quarters of foreign direct investment in developed economies, and creating most of new jobs worldwide. Establishing effective coordination mechanisms between trade negotiators, policymakers and regulators will be an important tool for the development of the global economy.

Economic Sanctions Disruption on International Trade Patterns and Global Trade Dynamics: Analyzing the Effects of the European Union’s Sanctions on Russia

Governments frequently use economic sanctions to influence or undermine the political actions or regimes of other countries. This case study of the economic sanctions imposed by the European Union on the Russian Federation in response to the annexation of the Crimean Peninsula serves as an illustrative example that provides new, in-depth insights into the implications of economic sanctions for international trade patterns and global trade dynamics. We conclude that sanctions negatively affect bilateral trade between the sanctioner and the target country, and that sanctions constrain the target country’s integration into the global economy.

Novel Food: The Impact of Innovation on the Paths of the Traditional Food Chain

Novel food refers to any type of food which was not used for human consumption before the 15 May 1997 in a specific place. This date refers to the introduction of European Union Regulation (EC) No 258/1997 which regulated the placing of novel foods or novel food ingredients on the market within the community for the first time. Then, the Regulation (EU) 2015/2283 changed the existing legislation for the categories of food belonging to novel food in order to guarantee a higher level of protection of human health and consumer interests. Algae, which are not commonly consumed by people but are considered among the most widespread foods of the future, are one of the principal food products of natural plant origin in the regulation of novel foods. However, even if algae were not well-known in the past, nowadays they are integrated into the different food cultures of the EU. This circumstance led to an analysis of the contribution of trade flows, of algae for human consumption inside and outside Europe, on the trade balance of the member countries of the European Union. Analysis of the Eurostat database was used to provide an overview of the international trade dynamics affecting the trade development of algae for human consumption in the European Union, with the aim of measuring the competitive dynamics within member countries.